Generally Accepted Accounting Principles

Este tutorial de **Contabilidad Básica** es una herramienta esencial para cualquiera que busque descifrar el lenguaje de los negocios y las finanzas personales. De manera **clara y progresiva**, guía al lector desde los fundamentos, como la ecuación contable básica y la diferencia entre activo, pasivo y patrimonio, hasta la aplicación práctica del sistema de **partida doble**. A través de ejemplos concretos, se explica cómo registrar transacciones, entender el ciclo contable completo (desde el libro diario al balance de comprobación), y cómo interpretar los estados financieros esenciales. Es ideal para emprendedores, estudiantes o profesionales que necesiten **solidez conceptual y confianza** para llevar un registro financiero preciso y tomar decisiones informadas.

According to research, accounting information-especially earnings-has remained valuable and relevant over time. Rather, other accounting elements like growth prospects and intangible assets have become more relevant, particularly in light of the new economy.

This paper is the result of an applied research project developed at the University of the Basque Country, in collaboration with companies that are particularly interested in quantifying the value of their intangibles. It proposes a method for the financial valuation of the intangibles based on a specific taxonomy. On the one hand, this distinguishes between intangible assets and core competences and, on the other hand, it classifies the latter according to the different intellectual capital categories driven by them. The paper aims to identify and quantify a company's intangibles in monetary terms, taking the incomes that they are capable of generating into account.

The FASB and IASB are reexamining and revising their existing conceptual frameworks. A conceptual framework consists of (1) objectives and (2) concepts that follow logically from those objectives. Most attention is being paid to the concepts, seemingly accepting the objective of wealth measurement. This paper suggests reconsideration of wealth measurement as the objective. Christensen and Demski (2003) suggest two views of accounting objectives: (1) the “value school” based on wealth measurement and (2) the “information content school” based on measuring and disclosing informative events. They make a case for the latter as the most logical objective of accounting. If one accepts the information-content approach to accounting, quite different concepts may arise. For example, the FASB and IASB are on record favoring the balance sheet approach over the revenue and expense approach. This is logical if wealth measurement is an appropriate objective. However, under the information content...

En el presente trabajo analizamos el tratamiento contable a otorgar a los resultados no trascendidos a terceros originados por operaciones entre entes que forman parte de un mismo grupo economico, al aplicar el metodo del valor patrimonial proporcional para la medicion de participacion en otros en entes y preparar estados contables consolidados. El estudio se enfoca principalmente en lo establecido en las normas contables argentinas para entes que no aplican las Normas Internacionales de Informacion Financiera (NIIF) y en las propuestas doctrinarias, aunque se incluye un resumen de lo establecido por las NIIF. Planteamos criticas a determinados criterios existentes, aportando nuestra propuesta. A efectos de enriquecer el analisis se presentan diversos casos que abordan situaciones de la practica habitual.

El presente trabajo se enmarca en nuestro proyecto de investigacion "Informacion contable de grupos economicos, combinaciones de negocios y participaciones en otros entes. Analisis doctrinario y de la normativa contable profesional y legal, evaluacion de la calidad de la informacion contable y aportes para su mejora e implementacion practica", y en particular abordaremos los casos de participaciones en entes societarios y no societarios en los cuales se ejerce control conjunto, llevando a cabo un analisis critico delas soluciones definidas por las normas contables locales en relacion al tratamiento contable y la informacion que debe ser suministrada por los entes inversores. A partir de este analisis, efectuaremos propuestas que entendemos mejoran la calidad de la informacion a ser suministrada, respondiendo a la realidad economica que se quiere representar. Cuando nos referimos a normas locales, lo hacemos en referencia a las normas contables emitidas por la Federacion Ar...

Resumen: Este artículo describe las diferencias que aún persisten entre las Normas Internacionales de Información Financiera y el Plan General de Contabilidad de 2007. Estas diferencias están centradas principalmente en la valoración posterior de los inmovilizados y de las inversiones inmobiliarias, en los métodos de contabilización de las subvenciones, en la capitalización de los gastos financieros, en el tratamiento contable de los gastos de investigación y de los programas informáticos, y en la determinación del deterioro de los instrumentos financieros. Estas diferencias entre las Normas Internacionales de Información Financiera y el Plan General de Contabilidad de 2007 son debidas a las resistencias de los valores imperantes en la tradición contable española, que sin duda se irán superando con el paso del tiempo.

This study sought to examine the repercussions of the adoption of the International Financial Reporting Standard 9 (IFRS 9) on the performance of commercial banks in Tanzania, with a focused inquiry into CRDB Bank. The objectives of the research encompass evaluating the impacts of these regulatory changes on financial performance, assessing alterations brought by IFRS 9 in risk management strategies, and evaluating provisioning practices implemented by CRDB Bank in response to IFRS 9. Employing a methodical approach, the study utilizes both descriptive and trend analyses to dissect data sourced from questionnaires and an exhaustive review of CRDB Bank's annual reports spanning from 2014 to 2023. The research sample is composed of 10 respondents, strategically selected to offer clear insights into the subject matter. The findings of this study found the significant impacts of IFRS 9 adoption on CRDB Bank's operational landscape. Financial performance metrics exhibit discernible shifts, reflecting the intricate interplay between compliance with IFRS 9 guidelines and overarching business objectives. Moreover, the analysis underscores notable advancements in risk management practices, indicative of a proactive approach towards mitigating potential liabilities. Additionally, the study sheds light on the provisioning practices, underscoring CRDB Bank's adaptability in response to evolving regulatory mandates where the NPL keep on becoming efficient over years since adapting IFRS 9. In light of these findings, the study recommend for strategic reformation within CRDB
Bank's operational framework to optimize alignment with the requisites of IFRS 9. Recommendations include the augmentation of risk management frameworks to enhance resilience in the face of regulatory fluctuations. Furthermore, enhancing a culture of continuous learning and adaptation can bolster CRDB Bank's capacity to navigate the complexities of IFRS 9 while concurrently optimizing financial performance., By embracing these recommendations, CRDB Bank can position itself as a trailblazer in the Tanzanian banking sector, not only in adherence to global accounting standards but also in fostering a culture of innovation and resilience amidst regulatory transformations.

The Ministry of Corporate Affairs of India made it mandatory to prepare the financial statements by following International Financial Reporting Standards converged accounting standards, that is, Ind AS, for Indian listed companies as well as non-listed companies having shareholder’s funds (net worth) equal to or above INR 500 Cr for the financial year commencing on 1st April, 2016. The present research provides an insight into the impact of IND-AS adoption on the financial statements of Indian listed companies across industries. The study attempts to find the statistically significant differences between companies’ Indian Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP)-based and IND-AS-based financial statements in terms of shareholder’s funds. The value of shareholders’ funds is obtained from the standalone financial statements constituted according to the two sets of accounting standards for the year in which the company adopted Ind AS. We attempted the secondary quantitative research in two steps: first, we tried to identify whether there was a percentage change in shareholder funds from GAAP to IND-AS. Secondly, we identify the percentage change is significant or not. The result of the research revealed a percentage change in the majority of the companies’ shareholder’s funds, that is, 87% of the sample size (1,288 companies). Further, it was also observed that the percentage change in shareholder’s fund was not significant.

We examine the effect of Australian equivalents to International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) on the accounts and accounting quality of 1,065 listed firms, relying on retrospective reconciliations between Australian Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (AGAAP) and IFRS. We find that IFRS increases total liabilities, decreases equity and more firms have earnings decreases than increases. IFRS earnings and equity are not more value relevant than AGAAP earnings and equity and while adjustments for changes in accounting for provisions and intangibles other than goodwill are value relevant, they weaken associations with market value. Goodwill adjustments improve associations with market value. We also find that the reconciliation note for the earnings adjustments contained no new information.

This article examines the comparability between Latin American Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP) and US by studying 314 of the 20-F Forms reported by Latin American companies listed on the New York Stock Exchange during the period 1997-2001. The influence of US accounting in Latin America is evident in several areas. Nevertheless, the Latin American accounting model addresses special issues, such as inflation accounting, in a manner different from that of the US The purpose of this research is to identify the impact of the international accounting differences on the fundamental accounting variables and to assess the frequency and materiality of these differences in four Latin American countries, namely Argentine, Brazil, Chile and Mexico. The results indicate that the gap between Latin American GAAP and US GAAP has not narrowed during the period.

This book addresses a longstanding issue that emerged 50 years ago and continues to persist-the lack of an accounting and reporting system for financial sustainability. Consequently, the primary aim of this book is to develop a novel accounting and reporting system for measuring and reporting long-term financial sustainability in the public sector. The significance of this book lies in its introduction of an innovative role within the field of accounting. This role entails providing guidance and issuing alerts to governments regarding essential adjustments needed in current policies to ensure the long-term financial sustainability of governmental entities. Through elucidating the prospective trajectory of public finance within the ongoing implementation of current policies, this approach functions as an early warning system for governments and empowering them to proactively modify their policies and transition from unsustainable scenarios to sustainable ones. The primary audience for this book includes practitioners, academics, students, professional bodies, and various users of accounting information in the public sector, such as public managers and policymakers seeking accounting information for corrective measures. Additionally, international organizations like the IMF and World Bank, tasked with assessing countries' long-term financial sustainability, will find this work indispensable.

The Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), the primary regulatory body that oversees the operations of the financial markets, requires that publiclytraded companies be subject to an annual audit -a set of procedures designed to determine whether a firm's financial statements fairly comply with generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP). When performing audits, auditors use generally accepted auditing standards (GAAS) as guidelines in determining the amount of evidence to gather and to what degree the client's accounting system may be relied upon. Since investors and their advisors rely on audited financial statements to make investment decisions, auditors have a significant impact on the financial

Globalization (primarily the economic one) is today an incontestable reality that has an important influence on the human condition, socioeconomic and cultural situation of the collectivities. The SMEs have an important position in the world wide economy. The accounting information provided by them must have the same role. We must decide: who are the users of this information, the comparability is compulsory at this level, the harmonization is required? Asking this question we must try to give an answer without ignoring the opinion of those who act in "in this show". At European level, the legitimacy to develop standards specific to SME is contested. However, this global accounting standard may represents a very significant step on the path to global convergence of financial reporting practices by SMEs. It will contribute to enhancing the quality and comparability of SME financial statements around the world and assist SMEs in gaining access to finance. We consider that IFRS for SMEs may still be considered too complex for micro-entities; however many of the requirements will not be applicable for entities with a more simple business model. The extent to which IFRS for SMEs can be used for tax purposes remains an issue that requires further study.

1. The decreasing usefulness of financial information............................................................................... 4 2. Business change and the deterioration of usefulness............................................................................ 13 3. Intangibles, innovation and change...................................................................................................... 22

The immediate expensing of research and development (R&D) expenditures is often justified by the conservatism principle. However, no accounting procedure consistently applied can be conservative throughout the firm's life. We therefore ask the following questions: (1) When is the expensing of R&D conservative and when is it aggressive, relative to R&D capitalization? (2) What are the capital-market implications of these reporting biases? To address these questions we construct a model of profitability biases (differences between reported profitability under R&D expensing and capitalization) and show that the key drivers of the reporting biases are the differences between R&D growth and earnings growth (momentum), and between R&D growth and return on equity (ROE). Companies with a high R&D growth rate relative to their profitability (typically early life-cycle companies) report conservatively, while firms with a low R&D growth rate (mature companies) tend to report aggressively under current generally accepted accounting principles. Our empirical analysis, covering the period 1972-2003, generally supports the analytical predictions. In the valuation analysis we find evidence consistent with investor fixation on the reported profitability measures: we detect undervaluation of conservatively reporting firms and overvaluation of aggressively reporting firms. These misvaluations appear to be corrected when the reporting biases reverse from conservative to aggressive and vice versa. This evidence is consistent with behavioral finance arguments about investor cognitive biases.

In this paper we suggest that market maker\ deduce the extent of the adverse selection problem associated with a stock (and set up the bid-ask spread accordingly) by observing how many financial analysts are following that stock. Market makers do this based on the belief that more financial analysts would follow a stock with a greater extent of information asymmetry since the value of private information increases with informational asymmetry. Similarly. financial analysts deduce the profit potential of a stock from the size of the spread set up by market makers (based on the expectation that market makers would set up a greater spread for the stock with a greater information asymmetry). This structural view of the process determining the bid-ask spread and analyst following is empirically tested using a simultaneous equations regression analysis. The empirical results are generally consistent with this vie&. Hence. our study supports the notion that the decisions of two major players in the financial markets (i.e.. market makers and financial analysts) are made interactively. 'See Brown and Rozeff (1478). Elton et al. (Elton et al.. IYXl; Elton et al.. lY84). Cragg and Malkiel (lYX2). Fried and Givoly (1982). and Brown et al. (1987) for empirical evidence.

The purpose of accounting is to gather financial data of a business or entity, to interpret this data and to report the results in financial statements to the different users thereof. The interpretation of financial data is regulated by financial accounting standards including an conceptual framework that were developed to facilitate the reporting of financial information of entities so that investors, analysts, creditors as well as the entities themselves can make informed financial decisions. Due to the history as well as some of the mechanisms used to develop the financial accounting standards, conceptual framework and interpretations, inconsistencies and ambiguities are part of the common legacy accountants and auditors are confronted with every day. This is problematic because financial reports have to be clear, concise and unambiguous as the cornerstone of international economies. In order to address the inconsistency problems, the development of unambiguous and principle based financial accounting standards is a key initiative of international financial accounting standards bodies such as the FASB and the IASB at present. This paper is concerned with the question of how recent developments in computer science technologies, specifically within knowledge representation and ontology technologies, could assist in dealing with and eliminating inconsistencies and ambiguities within and between different financial accounting standards. In our research, we developed a formal ontology for some of the basic elements, and in this paper, we report on our findings as well as make some suggestions for a formal approach to the conceptual framework and financial accounting standards development.

This study investigates how corporate organizational complexity affects analyst forecast behavior and the information environment of the firm. Using a unique sample of publicly traded Taiwan companies which are required to disclose information on all of their affiliates, we capture the feature of organizational complexity by measuring the number of investment layers connecting the parent firm and the lowest-tiered subsidiary. We argue that long chains of investment layers, which are associated with higher information asymmetry and agency costs, are likely to reduce the quality of financial reporting and complicate analysts' forecast tasks. We find that, after controlling for other determinants of forecasting behavior, analysts experience greater difficulty in predicting the earnings of firms with more investment layers than in predicting the earnings of firms with fewer layers. In addition, we find that a long chain of investment layers influences analyst forecast accuracy and dispersion more if firms also have a larger number of investees in tax havens and if firms have a higher deviation between controlling rights and cash flow rights. Overall, we document that organizational complexity exacerbates the agency costs between investors and managers, which in turn complicates analyst forecast tasks.

The objective of this study is to analyze the value relevance of accounting fraud and discretionary accruals (positive and negative discretionary accruals) in French context during the period 2006-2010. Using the model of Ohlson (1995) which test the price and return model, we note that the price model provides a more significant result on the value relevance than the return model. In addition, fraud has a more significant and negative effect than discretionary accruals and even dilutes its existence in the price and return model. This finding proves the signals theory that bad information transferred quickly in the stock market.

This study provides empirical evidence on the propensity of bank managers to smooth earnings through loan-loss provisions. The analysis on a sample of international banks using both pooled time-series cross-sectional and panel-data regressions leads to three main conclusions. First, bank managers actively use loan-loss provisions either to smooth high earnings or as an income-reducing tool when earnings are abnormally low. This result is consistent with Healey's (1985) compensation theory. Second, all other things being equal, banks following IFRSs or non-US local GAAPs have a greater discretion to smooth earnings. US GAAP exhibit the highest accounting quality, as remarked in Barth, Landsman, Lang and Williams (2006). Finally, we observe that in 2008, when the financial crisis hit its most critical stage, banks seemed to reduce the extent of earnings smoothing because they could have been below the minimum threshold for carrying out smoothing practices.

We examine the effect of Australian equivalents to International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) on the accounts and accounting quality of 1,065 listed firms, relying on retrospective reconciliations between Australian Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (AGAAP) and IFRS. We find that IFRS increases total liabilities, decreases equity and more firms have earnings decreases than increases. IFRS earnings and equity are not more value relevant than AGAAP earnings and equity and while adjustments for changes in accounting for provisions and intangibles other than goodwill are value relevant, they weaken associations with market value. Goodwill adjustments improve associations with market value. We also find that the reconciliation note for the earnings adjustments contained no new information.

This paper models the impact of the tax system and GAAP on the real and financial reporting decisions of corporations. It provides a first step toward joint evaluation of taxation and financial reporting in the standard economic analyses of corporate behavior. The key finding is that value arises from real decisions that provide firms with discretion in their tax and financial reporting. This desire for flexibility modifies the optimal decisions of firms, in theory, and we provide examples that illustrate this behavior in the real world.

Governmental Accounting Standards Board (GASB) Statement No. 34 (GASB 34), issued in 1999 with implementation beginning in 2002, comprehensively changed financial accounting and disclosure practices of US state and local governments. We posit that GASB 34 addressed a collective action problem in municipal debt markets, which prevented issuers from credibly communicating financial quality. We consider whether governments responded to GASB 34 by: (1) modifying the issuance of public debt; (2) shifting new public debt issuances among affiliated government units; and (3) delaying or accelerating debt issuances in anticipation of GASB 34 implementation. Because GASB 34 can affect governments differentially, we employ methods designed to investigate changes in higher moments of distributions of new debt characteristics. Results are consistent with the notion that GASB 34 encourages separation in public municipal debt markets on the financial quality dimension.

The aim of this paper is to examine the value relevance of fair value accounting of biological assets under IAS 41-Agriculture-using 389 firm-year observations of listed firms in 27 countries worldwide that had adopted IFRS, for the period between 2011 and 2013. In order to operationalize it as the ability of book value to explain market equity value, this study adjusts the original Ohlson model. The results confirm that recognized biological assets are value relevant at fair value and they are more value relevant in firms that exhibit higher disclosure levels. The same results were obtained when this analysis was conducted for bearer biological assets, but when it was applied to consumable biological assets, the results suggest that investors do not value recognized biological assets in firms that exhibit higher disclosure levels. Bearing in mind the current adjustments to IAS 41, according to which firms will be permitted to choose either the cost or the revaluation models for mature bearer plants under IAS 16-Property, plant and equipment-for annual periods beginning on/or after 1 January 2016, this paper seeks to help standard setters to better understand the market valuation implications of this standard.

Research Aims: This research is conducted to find out how the accounting treatment of the Heritage Asset, Pari temple, how the assets are recognized, recorded and reported in the financial statements using a case study viewpoint. Design/Methodology/Approach: The Researchers collected the research data in three phases; first, the Researcher interviewed informants or sources from relevant department or manager of Pari temple, namely the Balai Pelestarian Cagar Budaya (BPCB) Jawa Timur, second, the researcher checked documents of the Heritage Assets Pari temple, how it's recognized, as what, recorded, until now the value of Heritage Assets is, and the last data searching. Methods of data analysis in research is divided into three stages, first, data reduction, data selection, concentration, attention, abstraction and transforming the raw data from the field, second, the data display, presents data in the narrative and tables form to explain the phenomenon under study and the last is the conclusion. Research Findings: The results of this study is the recognition of the BPCB Jawa Timur is that Pari temple is recorded as a plant asset, and Pari temple is deliberate without value, so the Heritage Assets can not be traded. The amount of this recording conforms with based government accounting standards (PSAP) no. 07 the year 2010 statement no 69 that Heritage Assets must be recorded in the number of units without value. Theoretical contribution/Originality: The research contributes to find out how the accounting treatment of the Heritage Assets Pari temple Practitioner/Policy implication: Heritage assets are a material cultural heritage in the form of cultural heritage objects, cultural heritage buildings, cultural heritage structures, cultural heritage sites and cultural heritage areas on land or in water that needs to be preserved because they have essential values for history, science, education, religion, or culture through the determination process. Research limitation/Implication: The limitation of this research is that it has only a few informants since, in order to improve the effectiveness of research time, the researcher focuses more on the accounting treatment for Pari Temple as heritage assets.

The immediate expensing of research and development (R&D) expenditures is often justified by the conservatism principle. However, no accounting procedure consistently applied can be conservative throughout the firm's life. We therefore ask the following questions: (1) When is the expensing of R&D conservative and when is it aggressive, relative to R&D capitalization? (2) What are the capital-market implications of these reporting biases? To address these questions we construct a model of profitability biases (differences between reported profitability under R&D expensing and capitalization) and show that the key drivers of the reporting biases are the differences between R&D growth and earnings growth (momentum), and between R&D growth and return on equity (ROE). Companies with a high R&D growth rate relative to their profitability (typically early life-cycle companies) report conservatively, while firms with a low R&D growth rate (mature companies) tend to report aggressively under current generally accepted accounting principles. Our empirical analysis, covering the period 1972-2003, generally supports the analytical predictions. In the valuation analysis we find evidence consistent with investor fixation on the reported profitability measures: we detect undervaluation of conservatively reporting firms and overvaluation of aggressively reporting firms. These misvaluations appear to be corrected when the reporting biases reverse from conservative to aggressive and vice versa. This evidence is consistent with behavioral finance arguments about investor cognitive biases.

Purpose-The purpose of this paper is to investigate the incremental value relevance of cash flow from operations (CFO) given book value and earnings. It also examines the relative value relevance of earnings and CFO and changes therein between the 2008-2009 global financial crisis (GFC) and the pre-crisis period (PCP). Design/methodology/approach-Least square regressions are estimated using modified Ohlson model to examine the research questions. Relative and incremental value relevance is examined by adjusted R 2 and Vuong Z statistics. Findings-The findings suggest that CFO has value relevance incremental to book value and earnings. The findings also suggest that earnings has greater relative and incremental information content than CFO in the Australian market. The value relevance of earnings has increased and that of CFO has decreased during the GFC compared to the PCP. Research limitations/implications-This study focuses on a single country. Future studies can conduct crosscountry examination of the impact of the GFC on the value relevance of earnings and CFO. Practical implications-This study contributes to the debate on the value relevance of CFO incremental to book value and earnings. It also extends the literature, showing that earnings has information content (value relevance) superior to CFO in the Australian market even during an economy-wide exogenous shock like the one of the 2008-2009 GFC. Originality/value-This is the first known study examining the value relevance of fundamental accounting information such as earnings and CFO in the context of the 2008-2009 GFC. It extends prior research in East Asian countries in the context of 1997 Asian financial crisis and provides evidence on the impact of a worldwide exogenous shock on the value relevance of earnings and CFO from a relatively mature and developed country with different legal, institutional and enforcement backgrounds.

This paper examines the long-run relationship of accounting numbers and share prices n Japan. The primary motivation behind this study is the major changes of accounting standards (often called as "Accounting Big-Bang") in Japan. This paper tests whether: 1) the relationship between the value of equity and accounting numbers has changed, and 2) the value-relevance of accounting numbers has increased. Another motivation behind this study is the fact that related studies in the U.S. so far provided conflicting evidence over the long-run trend of the change in the usefulness of accounting numbers. Japan provides a unique opportunity for research because the major changes occurred in a short time period. The first test found that the relationship between the accounting numbers and share prices experienced a structural change during the 'bubble economy era.' Further analysis showed that the relationship is different before and after the 'bubble.' The second test suggests that the usefulness of accounting information in Japan has improved recently. Although the limited availability of the data prohibits us from testing the full effect of the changes in Japanese accounting standards, this study shows that the recent overhaul of accounting standards in Japan is at least partially successful in providing more useful information than before.

The purpose of this study is to analyse the economic effect of foreign currency translation adjustments and to investigate the relationship between these adjustments and firm value, for a sample of 181 Australian multinational corporations, with foreign subsidiaries concentrated in three specific geographical regions (Asia, Europe and NAFTA). The study is based on collected data for the five-year period from 2000 to 2004, and uses a two-stage market model methodology, resulting in the implementation of a cross-sectional time series model to test for the affect of translation differences on computed excess returns. The study finds that translation adjustments in income statements and in shareholders' equity are significantly related to excess returns. These results are consistent with accounting exposure being contributory to firm value.

La presente investigación nació de la necesidad de medir el impacto que ocasiona el no pago del impuesto de industria y comercio por parte de los tenderos de la zona urbana de Aguachica, Cesar. Este proyecto fue aplicado a los tenderos que poseen registro mercantil. El marco referencial estuvo encaminado a lo establecido en el Estatuto Tributario de Aguachica, las generalidades y normativa del impuesto de industria y comercio y las teorías de Adam Smith del valor y la distribución, Adolfo Wanner del derecho financiero, Harold Sommers en finanzas públicas y la teoría de la Hacienda Pública. La metodología empleada para este estudio fue de enfoque mixto (cualitativo-cuantitativo), de tipo descriptivo, con muestreo estadístico de poblaciones finitas, con un nivel de ocurrencia de 0,5, un margen de error del 10% y nivel de confianza del 90%. Los resultados arrojados fueron, la caracterización a las tiendas formales de la zona urbana de la circunscripción, el procedimiento para el regist...

This research was conducted with the aim of knowing the importance of securing assets in an effort to prevent fraud in the public sector. This research has an urgency and effort on the importance of administration and legal protection of fixed assets in the public sector. This study uses information obtained directly from 60 employees who work at the KBB Regional Finance and Asset Agency (BKAD). The method of analysis in this study uses regression analysis. The results of this study indicate that asset security has a positive effect on fraud prevention. This shows that the better the implementation of fixed asset security, the better the fraud prevention that can be done.

I. BACKGROUND In general, accounting can be defined as an information system that functions to provide quantitative information from an organizational value or an economic unit addressed to users as a basis for economic decision making. Independently, accounting can be defined as service activities carried out to measure, process and communicate financial information of an organizational unit or economic unit for use by users in economic decision making. (Tjahyono &; Sulastriningsih, 2003:2) Basically, government accounting is a type of accounting used in the process of recording, classifying, and reporting various state financial transactions. The intended transaction includes all types of transactions carried out by the government in processing state finances. All transactions that have been carried out are written or included in the financial statements. Technically, the Report is defined in PSAK 1 2009 as follows: Government regulation (PP) No. 71 of 2010 states that historical assets are fixed assets owned or controlled by the government which due to their age and condition must be protected by applicable regulations in order to avoid all kinds of actions that can damage assets which can also result in extinction of these assets. The Government Accounting Standard (SAP) states that fixed assets are "tangible assets that have a useful life of more than 12 (twelve) months to be used in government activities or utilized by the community. (Government Accounting Standards Committee, 2010). This research will focus on the accounting treatment applied to historical assets in Indonesia both in terms of recognition, measurement, valuation, presentation and disclosure in financial statements. This research uses qualitative methods. Kastela Fort (Nostra senhorade rasario) was chosen as a research setting because Kastela Fort (Nostra senhorade rasario) is one of Indonesia's historical assets that is well known to the wider community when visiting Ternate City. For information that there are 4 forts that are recognized as historical assets by the Cultural Heritage Preservation Agency (BPCP) of North Maluku Province, namely 1. Fort Tölucco. 2. Fort Kalamata, 3. Fort Kota Janji (saint pedro e paulo), and 4. Kastela Fortress. (Nostra senhorade rasario).

This article discusses the paper by Bond, Govendir, and Wells (2016). The comments focus on four issues: (i) the evaluation of the book to market ratio of equity as an impairment indicator; (ii) the managerial discretion on realized impairments; (iii) the interpretation of the increase in asset impairment after transition to IFRS; and (iv) the role of cross-sectional analysis in investigating asset impairments.

In a democratic state, citizens expect that those currently in power be obliged to justify the way they spend and manage public funds. The enforcement of accountability has seve-ral preconditions. At the same time, the accounting system constitutes one part of the public sector’s infor-mation system. Thus, studying the information system in a systematic manner is important. The information system must meet diverse needs. The present paper aims at showing those requirements.When considered in a comparative perspective, different public accountancy systems implemented internationally show different form. Every country can decide in which area and how the cash-flow approach and accrual based accounting can be used. The purpose of this paper is to verify whether and how could the usage of accrual based accounting influence the public accounting methods and the functions of public accountancy

Donald C. Cook served as a member of the U. S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) from 1949 to 1953 and as Chairman during the last two years. His unique position as the only Certified Public Accountant (CPA) who served as Commission Chairman has been largely unnoticed and elicits the need for a profile about the individual, his background, career, and what, if any, legacy might be related to it. Cook was also unique in that his prior staff experience at the SEC was primarily in the public utilities division. This profile describes and identifies several episodes in Cook's career at the SEC and after. These include other public service positions in government and his executive career at American Electric Power (AEP) as president and board chairman. These years were often filled with controversy and challenges in dealings with the SEC and with issues relating to consolidation among utilities as the country's demand for electrical energy grew substantially. His government service roles beyond the SEC acquainted him with many political leaders. He was an advisor to President Lyndon Johnson, who shared the opinion of others that Cook was "the smartest man in the country" [Johnson, Telephone conversation No. 7070, March 16, 1965].

We examine comment letters written in response to the SEC's Proposed IFRS Roadmap using traditional content analysis and CLUTO, a unique text clustering software. We find that while there is strong support for the idea of one set of high quality global accounting standards, a majority of respondents are opposed to the proposed roadmap. Additionally, our results suggest that comments received systematically differ with respondent characteristics such as respondent type, firm characteristics, and industry affiliation. Finally, the complementary use of CLUTO with manual content analysis and the robust results obtained from CLUTO, provide support for the potential use of CLUTO to examine large textual databases in future accounting research.

The term``Anglo-Saxon accounting'' (ASA) is used by a number of academic writers on the subject of International Accounting to refer to an approach to financial accounting and reporting that is supposedly common to the UK and Ireland, the USA and other English-speaking countries including Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. While most of the writers we cite as using this term are continental Europeans, they also include an Englishman, J. Flower. The term is typically used to imply not just similar conceptual and technical approaches, but also a hegemonic alliance in the international politics of accounting regulation. This article seeks to establish that ASA in this sense is a myth. We do this first by critically examining four putative commonalities that are frequently attributed to the UK and USA approaches to financial accounting and that form the basis of the myth, and second by indicating the unfeasibility of such a hegemonic alliance within the IASC. A myth may have some factual foundations, but belief in it rests also on bases that are non-factual. So it is with ASA. In particular, analysis of the terms``true and fair view'' (TFV) and``fair presentation (FP) in accordance with generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP)'' shows that, far from their possessing a semantic equivalence that constitutes a commonality between UK and US financial reporting, their interpretation indicates a profound difference between the UK and US approaches. What UK and US financial reporting have historically shared is a micro-and capital market orientation that lends itself to international accounting regulation in a context of global capital markets. But with such an orientation now being generally accepted internationally, the differences between UK and US financial reporting are taking on an increased significance that this article seeks to highlight. The concept of``Anglo-Saxon'' or Anglo-American accounting (hereafter ASA) has a long tradition and is very much``alive and kicking'' as a recent article by Flower (1997) demonstrates. In broad terms, there are two groupings of countries that dominate financial reporting at the international level: the European Union, through its Directives, and the Anglo Americans, with the IASC as their chosen instrument.The European Commission is seeking a grand realignment of the powers that determine the rules

This paper examines the nature of generally accepted accounting principles from the viewpoint of the philosophy of law (or jurisprudence). It shows that the dominance of a form of utilitarian legal positivism in accounting thought, at least in the United States, has inhibited the development of accounting principles which promote fair nancial reporting.

The uncertainty surrounding oil and gas reserves estimation and the cost of gathering reserves data discourage firms from disclosing sufficient data to satisfy SORP (statement of recommended practice) requirements, especially where oil and gas reserves disclosure is discretionary. However, the need to reduce agency cost and signal to stakeholders induces firms to disclose oil and gas reserves. The contrasting views on the rationale guiding the extent of disclosure were examined in this study. A sample was drawn from 83 United Kingdom (UK) oil and gas exploration and production companies listed on the London Stock Exchange. Appropriate statistical tools were used to investigate the extent of oil and gas reserves disclosure. The findings provide mixed results about the extent of disclosure to meet SORP's requirements. There was no particular evidence that UK oil and gas companies provide qualitatively acceptable oil and gas reserves quantity information. The observed varying degrees of disclosure in the market could be attributed to a discretionary regime that allows firms to determine how and when to disclose. Policy makers and industry regulators could find the results useful in assessing the current extent of disclosure compliance.

This study examines the information effects of mandatory adoption of International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) on listed firms in European countries. We find that both the analyst information environment (proxied by analyst forecast characteristics) and the public information environment (proxied by the information content of earnings announcements and the importance of earnings announcements relative to the total information environments of firms) improved for mandatory adopters after the IFRS regulation became effective in 2005. We also find similar information effects around 2005 for firms that voluntarily adopted IFRS before 2005. Additional analyses suggest that the improvement in the information content of earnings announcements in the post-IFRS period is primarily driven by earnings components excluded from analysts' earnings forecasts. In addition, we find that adoption effects differ across countries and across legal origins.

Current accounting practice expenses many investments in intangible assets to the income statement, confusing earnings from current revenues with investments to gain future revenues. This has led to increasing calls to book those investments to the balance sheet. Drawing on relevant research, we evaluate solutions for intangible asset accounting that contrast with balance sheet recognition, and we compare these with current practice under IFRS. Key is acknowledging that an accounting solution comes from a double-entry system, which produces both an income statement and a balance sheet, and which has features that both enable and limit the information that can be conveyed about intangible asset value. In this system, asset recognition in the balance sheet must consider the effect on measurement in the income statement, for the income statement conveys value added to investment on the balance sheet. A determining feature is uncertainty about investment outcome and how that affects the income statement, so our solutions centre on accounting under uncertainty. Two other accounting features are added: there has to be an investment expenditure for balance sheet recognition, and that expenditure must be separately identifiable from transactions. These features, rather than the tangible-intangible asset dichotomy, lead to the prescribed solutions.

For 2005 through 2010, we examine the extent to which S&P 100 companies provide non-GAAP income measures in their annual earnings releases. Our findings provide insight into the evolving nature and magnitude of the adjusting items characteristic of non-GAAP income measures during the post-Reg G period. We find that the number of S&P 100 companies disclosing a non-GAAP income measure increases significantly from 44% to 60% during our period of study. Based on Gray's (1980) index of materiality, we find that for each year between 2005 and 2010, the excess of non-GAAP income compared to GAAP income is 18%, 19%, 43%, 61%, 54%, and 45%, respectively. For approximately half of the S&P 100 disclosing non-GAAP income measures, we identify repetitive adjustments for the same item (e.g. restructuring) in multiple years. While none of these companies specifically refer to repetitive adjustments as non-recurring, infrequent or unusual, several include terminology alluding to the use of non-GAAP earnings to evaluate 'ongoing' operating trends. Thus, our findings suggest that a change in tone at the SEC has lead to the reappearance of the disclosure of non-GAAP performance measures that the Commission previously considered to be potentially misleading. In January 2010, the SEC relaxed its position on non-GAAP disclosures clarifying that the recurring item prohibition for SEC filings is based on the description of the item adjusted, not its nature. Finally, while most of the S&P 100 providing such disclosures indicate why management believes presentation of a non-GAAP financial measure is useful to investors, the rationales are typically general and broad and accordingly not informative.

General purpose financial reports (GPFRs) of public sector entities are developed primarily to respond to the information needs of service recipients, resource providers, and their representatives, who do not possess the authority to require a public sector entity to disclose the information they need for accountability and decision-making purposes. GPFRs can report information about the past, present and future that is useful to users-including financial and non-financial, quantitative and qualitative information about: a the achievement of financial and service delivery objectives in the current reporting period b anticipated future service delivery activities and resource needs. The IPSASB is currently exploring how service performance information can assist users in assessing how efficiently and effectively public sector entities are using resources to provide services and achieve their objectives.