Language Typology

The paper deals with serial verb constructions in Kwa, Benue
Congo and Gur with the verb ‘take’ that is used as an object marker with
the lexical verb. The factors relevant for the choice between the ‘take’
construction and simple transitive construction are discussed. These factors include semantics and pragmatics of the ‘take’-construction itself
(accenting the initial stage of the event, emphasizing the event or the ob
ject), features of the object (pronominality, definiteness), features of the
lexical verbs (presence of more arguments, agentivity, volitivity).

En este trabajo presentamos los resultados de una investigación para identificar posibles áreas de variación sintáctica en el maya yucateco. Para ello, hemos desarrollado una nueva metodología que llamamos "metodología del texto comparado". Esta metodología consiste en tomar un texto base en la lengua original, y comparar la forma y estructura de las mismas oraciones que componen el texto en diferentes localidades, en este caso de habla maya. Al comparar las mismas oraciones entre estas diferentes localidades, tanto con el texto original como entre ellas, observamos importantes diferencias morfosintácticas y sintácticas, que en su mayoría no han sido reportadas previamente.

This article examines the relationship between natural language and causal cognition and argues that linguistic structures both reflect and constrain the ways in which humans conceptualize and represent causation. It opens with a survey of foundational philosophical theories of causation, focusing on the tension between metaphysical accounts and judgment-based approaches. The discussion then turns to a range of linguistic phenomena-including causative constructions, conditional sentences, discourse coherence, aspectual interpretation, and argument structure-demonstrating how causal relations are systematically encoded across grammatical domains. Building on insights from linguistics, philosophy, and cognitive science, the article reviews recent developments of a semantic framework for modeling causal knowledge in language. Rather than assuming a uniform mapping between causal relations and their linguistic expressions, the framework accounts for systematic variation in how causality is selected, structured, and communicated. In doing so, it positions natural language as a key source of evidence for understanding the architecture of causal reasoning and its representation in human cognition.

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This commentary starts by discussing the future of theoretical linguistics in the context the rise of Large Language Models (LLMs). While comparative linguistics will likely persist due to universal interest in linguistic diversity, it is indeed questionable whether Chomskyan generative linguistics will continue as before. Its key contributions are mid-level generalizations, but its claims about innate linguistic knowledge have not been supported. One problem with Chesi's article is his focus on computational efficiency as this diverges from the Chomskyan goals. The commentary lists six core theoretical goals of linguistics and relates Chesi's article to these six goals. In particular, the conflation of theories (language-specific descriptions) and frameworks (general tools) has often created confusion. Ultimately, the text concludes that generative linguistics' decline does not doom the discipline.

The Kukama-Kukamiria language has about thirteen grammaticalized constructions to express different semantic relations between events. These constructions exhibit asymmetric dependency and different degrees of syntactic integration with the main clause. In this study, we focus on four constructions that exhibit restrictions in terms of obligatory coreference between the arguments of the main event and those of the subordinate event. Two of them encode purpose, two manner/simultaneity. A notable fact is that in three of these constructions, the argument that controls the coreference in the matrix clause is the absolutive (S/O). This constitutes a typological novelty given that the most common crosslinguistic pattern is in which the nominative argument (S/A) of the matrix clause controls the coreference of arguments in the subordinate clause.

The morphological marking of adjectival comparatives, although prevalent in European languages, is a cross-linguistically uncommon feature. Grammaticalization of comparative markers represent a typologically under-explored field of study. Similar to other linguistic areas, the majority of Siberian languages lack morphologicalcomparative markers. However, the Northern Tungusic languages display a distinctive characteristic: a preva-lent use of morphologically marked adjectives within comparative constructions is observed in multiple Evenkiand Even dialects and in Upper Negidal. This study investigates the provenance of comparative markers andtheir distribution across a range of dialects. Textual data forms the principal basis of this research. Examplesof comparative constructions were drawn from published electronic corpora and field-collected texts. The anal-ysis has revealed an ungoing grammaticalization of comparative morphological markers in Evenki, Even, andUpper Negidal dialects. Across all investigated continental Northern Tungusic varieties, the suffix with selec-tive meaning is found to develop a comparative function. A shared suffix is frequently noted in descriptions ofNanaic and Oroch-Udihe grammar, yet it is absent from the corpus of available texts. The Bystraia Even dialectof the Kamchatka Peninsula utilizes the attenuative suffix to express comparison, disregarding its typical attenuative meaning. Typologically, both selective and attenuative semantics is related to comparative con-structions, sometimes sharing identical forms (e.g., in Indo-European and Uralic languages).

В работах Дж. Николс и В.Д. Соловьёва, написанных в конце 2000-х гг., был предложен типологический подход к языковой классификации. В тот момент подход был признан несовершенным и отвергнут. Сейчас, с связи с появлением новой  методологии, основанной на использовании подходов компьютерной филогенетики, представляется возможным провести новое исследование и заново подтвердить или опровергнуть ранее выдвинутые гипотезы. Исследование, проведённое с использованием новых методов компьютерной филогенетической лингвистики, подтверждает опасения, высказанные ранее представителями Московской школы компаративистики. Для построения филогенетической классификации, основанной на типологических признаках, необходимо в первую очередь создать соответствующие наборы данных, подготовленные и сбалансированные по генетическому критерию. Помимо этого, необходима тщательная внутренняя реконструкция анализируемых семей.

Over the last two decades, an increasing number of scientists have expressed worries as it has been increasingly clear that in a range of fields, a large proportion of scientific results could not be repeated (or “replicated”, or “reproduced”). Is this perhaps also a problem for comparative linguistics? For comparative grammar (or typology), reproducibility was first discussed two decades ago (Plank 2006), and as more and more research projects use advanced quantitative methods, it is of course important to have some discussion of which are the best methods, and whether different statistical approaches give the same results. It seems clear from discussions in other fields that the way scientists use statistical methods is often highly problematic. In 2005, John Ioannidis shocked researchers by suggesting that “for most study designs and settings, it is more likely for a research claim to be false than true” (Ioannidis 2005). ...

This presentation addresses the following questions regarding prosodic prominence in Hindi for resolution :
• What is the pattern of prominence in phonological phrases in Hindi?
• How is phrasal prominence manifested on the surface in Hindi?
The data from prosodic phonology and intonational phonology of Hindi and some other Indic languages lead to the following conclusion: “Modifier-first ordering is typical of Indian languages generally…” ( Donegan and Stampe 1983)

En este trabajo presentamos los resultados de una investigación para identificar posibles áreas de variación sintáctica en el maya yucateco. Para ello, hemos desarrollado una nueva metodología que llamamos "metodología del texto comparado". Esta metodología consiste en tomar un texto base en la lengua original, y comparar la forma y estructura de las mismas oraciones que componen el texto en diferentes localidades, en este caso de habla maya. Al comparar las mismas oraciones entre estas diferentes localidades, tanto con el texto original como entre ellas, observamos importantes diferencias morfosintácticas y sintácticas, que en su mayoría no han sido reportadas previamente. Palabras clave: lenguas mayas, maya yucateco, variación lingüística, sintaxis, morfosintaxis. El Colegio de México (colmex),

Building Adjectives: A Typological Overview of Adjectival Constructions
Keywords: Typology; Adjectives; Quality Modifiers; Constructions; Parts of Speech
It is well known that languages do not only differ in the features whereby they define their parts of speech (PoS) and in the number of PoS that they define, but also – and perhaps more importantly – in the levels of language structure at which they do so. As a confirmation, quite a few studies discussed the levels at which the noun can be defined across languages (Hopper & Thompson 1984, Mithun 2000, Lazard 1999). However, barring some notes in Thompson (1988) and Alfieri (2014), a similar approach to the study of the adjective class has never been proposed (exception made for Krasnoukhova 2022), although adjectives are missing more often than nouns across languages (see, e.g., Dixon 1982, Bhat 1994, Hengeveld 1992, Beck 2002; Dixon & Aikhenvald 2004, Haspelmath 2012).

The aim of the talk is to fill this gap and present a typology of the levels of language analysis at which adjectival constructions can be coded across languages.

Following Croft (2001: 66ff.), the “adjective” is defined as the most typical quality modifier construction in a language. A variety sample of 100 languages is, thus, gathered for the present talk and languages are classified on the level of language structure at which the most typical adjectival construction (i.e. quality modifier) is fixed. In the sample, the quality modifier construction is fixed at six main levels. In Latin, Amele, Dyirbal and Lavukaleve the typical adjective is a simple stem; simple stem adjectives are marked by agreement in gender (Latin, Amele) or classifier (Dyirbal), and they can share most of their properties with nouns (Latin, Amele, Dyirbal) or verbs (Lavukaleve). In RigVedic Sanskrit, Classical Arabic and Yimas, the typical quality modifier is a derived stem that is formally different from a relative clause (that is, different markers code the two functions); derived stem adjectives agree in gender (RV Sanskrit, Arabic) or classifiers (Yimas). In Garo and Urarina the typical quality modifier construction is a derived stem that is also a relative clause (that is, a single affix code both functions, as in the relative-participles of Tibetan languages, Genetti 1992, 2005). In Tuscarora and Jamul Tiipay, the typical quality modifier construction is a clause that differs from a derived stem (i.e. a relative clause or a word-sentence marked for switch-reference). In Chukchi and, partly, in Nivkh, the typical quality modifier is a verb stem incorporated into a noun. Finally, in Vietnamese, Lao and Quechua, the quality modifier is a phrasal constituent that is, a quality lexeme settled in the modifier slot of the phrase without overt marking, as in Hengeveld’s “flexible” strategy (see Rijkhoff & Van Lier 2013). Phrasal adjectives can share most of their properties with nouns (Quechua) or with verb (Vietnamese, Lao).

If the preliminary results will be confirmed, the simple stem (i.e. the lexicon), the derived stem, the relative-stem, the phrase and the clause represent the focal layers of the lexico-syntax continuum defined by Croft (2001: 17), and the first sketch of a cross-linguistic theory of the levels of language structure.

In Papuan languages like Wambon and Urim demonstrative forms are used both in contexts of referent identification, e.g. as demonstrative operators in noun phrases, and in topicality contexts, e.g. as topic markers with adverbial clauses and phrases, recapitulative clauses, new topic NPs and given topic NPs. Using notions from the Functional Grammar framework (Dik, 1989), I present a non-unified account of the demonstrative forms: helping the addressee to identify referents by giving deictic hints like 'close to speaker' and orienting the addressee about the topical cohesion of the discourse are two separate functional domains in language. This 'two-domain' hypothesis, which views the demonstrative forms as having two synchronically unrelated functions, explains the fact that in Wambon and Urim the demonstratives show important differences in form and behaviour depending on whether they are used for referent identification or for expressing topicality distinctions. The 'two-domain' hypothesis explains such formal differences but cannot explain the formal similarities between topic markers and demonstrative operators in Papuan languages like Wambon and Urim. To explain these formal similarities I suggest a diachronic development: in several Papuan languages topic markers developed from demonstrative operators. In the relatively well-documented Awyu-family of Papuan languages this process can be traced: in Wambon, the resumptive demonstrative pronoun-eve integrated in the preceding NP as a topic marker in stative clauses with a very transparant dichotomous topic-comment structure. In Korowai, also of the Awyu-family, the clitic-efO, the cognate of Wambon-eve 'that', completely lost its function as a demonstrative operator and functions solely as a topic marker. ~ This paper is based on a lecture given during the Workshop on Pragmatics and Grammar, University of Hamburg, 11-12 December 1992. I should thank the participants in that workshop for their stimulating critical comments.

This article presents an analysis of serial verb constructions in Wa'ikhana, an East Tukanoan language, from a usage-based constructionist perspective. Four kinds of serializations are identified and described. One of them-a serialization with the verb duku 'stand'-is analyzed in more detail, since not only does this construction have a more grammaticalized meaning, but also it has one instance yauduku (yau 'talk/tell' + duku 'stand') that has already become a new node in the constructicon, i.e., that constitutes a new lexical construction.

This paper discusses the contrast between two modes of typological comparison of grammatical constructions, following a distinction made by Croft (2022): We may start out from (construction-)functions and consider the diverse (construction-) strategies that languages use, or we may focus on the strategies themselves (e.g. reflexive constructions, passives, copula constructions). Both kinds of comparative concepts are widely employed, but our traditional grammatical terms are often used in different ways. Here I suggest that we can avoid confusions and arrive at clearer terminologies if we take this distinction into account, and I discuss the concrete example of the term existential construction (best regarded as a constructionfunction, not a kind of construction-strategy).

In this paper, we investigate evolutionarily recent changes in the distributions of speech sounds in the world's languages. In particular, we explore the impact of language contact in the past two millennia on today's distributions. Based on three extensive databases of phonological inventories, we analyse the discrepancies between the distribution of speech sounds of ancient and reconstructed languages, on the one hand, and those in present-day languages, on the other. Furthermore, we analyse the degree to which the diffusion of speech sounds via language contact played a role in these discrepancies. We find evidence for substantive differences between ancient and present-day distributions, as well as for the important role of language contact in shaping these distributions over time. Moreover, our findings suggest that the distributions of speech sounds across geographic macro-areas were homogenized to an observable extent in recent millennia. Our findings suggest that what we call the Implicit Uniformitarian Hypothesis, at least with respect to the composition of phonological inventories, cannot be held uncritically. Linguists who would like to draw inferences about human language based on presentday cross-linguistic distributions must consider their theories in light of even short-term language evolution. This article is part of the theme issue 'Reconstructing prehistoric languages'.

This paper investigates universal and areal structures in the lexicon as manifested by colexification patterns in the semantic domains of perception and cognition, based on data from both small and large datasets. Using several methods, including weighted semantic maps, formal concept lattices, correlation analysis, and dimensionality reduction, we identify colexification patterns in the domains in question and evaluate the extent to which these patterns are specific to particular areas. This paper contributes to the methodology of investigating areal patterns in the lexicon, and identifies a number of cross-linguistic regularities and of area-specific properties in the structuring of lexicons.

Therefore, we (Moran and Grossman) organized two conference workshops in 2019 aimed specifically at highlighting current research in phonological typology. The first, entitled 'Phonological (in)stability and language evolution,' took place at the annual meeting of the Societas Linguistica Europaea (SLE), from August 21-24, in Leipzig, Germany. The second, which shares the title with this special volume, was held at the meeting of the Association for Linguistic Typology (ALT), from September 4-6, in Pavia, Italy. The present special issue emerged from these two workshops. Its aims are twofold. First, like those before us (e.g., Hyman and Plank 2018), we aim to raise the profile of phonological typology within typology and beyond. Phonological typology is particularly important for a number of reasons. First, phonology is one of the few domains of language in which we have substantial cross-linguistic data. Second, phonology has traditionally been a testing ground for linguistic theories, including a range of structuralist, generativist, and functionalist or usage-based theories; many concepts first developed for phonology were later expanded to other domains of language, and phonological data have been the basis for diverse perspectives on the relationship between synchrony and diachrony. Third, there is broad agreement among linguists of every persuasion that the sound patterns of languages are ultimately phonetically-based, which means that typological studies can make reference

This study provides two mathematical formalizations of borrowability. These operationalizations allow us to quantitatively evaluate the borrowability of phonological segments and to make predictions about the likelihood that speech sounds will be borrowed in language contact situations. Our approach departs from traditional borrowability hierarchies based on qualitative observations and instead provides empirically motivated models based on probability theory and statistics. Our study uses as input two large crosslinguistic segment inventory databases, and our results show that segments have markedly different borrowability profiles, highlighting their different diffusion patterns through space and time.*

Los estudios realizados sobre la variedad de castellano hablado por bilingües mapudungun-castellano han reportado una serie de rasgos que la diferencian del castellano estándar hablado en Chile. Sin embargo, no hay hasta ahora estudios en el dominio de la negación en la variedad. Este trabajo aborda la negación en el castellano de contacto producido por hablantes bilingües de mapudungun desde la teoría del contacto lingüístico y la tipología. El estudio se realiza a partir de un corpus de cláusulas negativas tomadas de 20 entrevistas a hablantes bilingües mapudungun-castellano de dos comunidades de la Región de la Araucanía, Chile. El análisis da cuenta del uso de construcciones negativas en las que tanto la negación clausal no como las palabras negativas tampoco y nunca aparecen antes del verbo y a su vez estas últimas aparecen antes de la negación, construcciones que no ocurren en el castellano estándar de Chile. Si bien la aparición de este tipo de construcciones negativas es sistemática, su frecuencia no es predominante en el corpus analizado. Se discuten posibles explicaciones de este fenómeno a partir de la situación de contacto.

How to define a Chinese word has long been a big and difficult issue which relates to how to distinguish between morpheme and word and how to distinguish between word and phrase. This paper maintains that the Lexical Integrity Hypothesis cannot indeed solve the issue of how to define a Chinese compound word. It proposes that the essence of word-formation is naming. A comprehensive standard is put forward to identify a Chinese compound word in this paper. It includes some necessary conditions and a dispensable condition. The necessary conditions are the components of words, the number of syllables and semantic features of words respectively. The components of a Chinese word must be generic morphemes. The number of syllables in a Chinese word must be two or three and the meaning of a Chinese word must be idiocratic. The dispensable condition demands that the word endings must be unstressed syllables.

This paper provides a comprehensive analysis of functional and typological approaches in linguistics from the 1960s to the present, examining how these paradigms revolutionized the field by prioritizing language function over form. The emergence of functional-typological linguistics marked a fundamental shift from structuralist concerns with autonomous grammatical systems to investigations of language as a tool for human communication. This study traces the theoretical foundations laid by pioneering scholars including Michael Halliday's Systemic Functional Grammar, Simon Dik's Functional Grammar, Joseph Greenberg's typological universals, Talmy Givón's bio-evolutionary perspective, and the contemporary contributions of Bernard Comrie and William Croft. Through systematic examination of cross-linguistic variation and universal tendencies, functional-typological approaches have demonstrated that grammatical structures are fundamentally shaped by communicative needs, cognitive constraints, and social factors. The paper analyzes key theoretical concepts including communicative efficiency, implicational universals, grammaticalization processes, and information structure, while exploring methodological innovations in corpus analysis, statistical typology, and experimental validation. Contemporary applications in language documentation, computational linguistics, and pedagogical frameworks illustrate the enduring relevance of functional-typological insights for both theoretical understanding and practical linguistic applications. The analysis concludes by examining ongoing debates regarding form-function relationships, methodological challenges in cross-linguistic comparison, and future directions for integrating functional perspectives with cognitive science, evolutionary biology, and anthropological approaches to language study.

Entre fines del siglo XIX y lo que va del XXI pueden reconocerse tres momentos en los que el vínculo entre investigadores y hablantes indígenas ha adoptado distintas formas según los marcos teóricos aplicados y los espacios disciplinares desde los que se investiga. En este artículo propongo el análisis de tres modelos de trabajo, el ‘coleccionista’, el de ‘rescate’ y el de ‘colabor’, que se corresponden con tres tipos de colaboradores a lo largo del período: los ‘hablantes anonimizados’, cuya función fue proporcionar algunos términos léxicos e información general sobre las lenguas; ‘hablantes identificados’, quienes cumplieron un rol clave en las descripciones lingüísticas, y ‘hablantes involucrados’, miembros de las comunidades que desarrollan o acompañan activamente instancias de investigación y revitalización lingüística.

This article analyzes the word bolmačï, which is rarely attested in Early Middle Turkic texts and has been overlooked by scholars until now.
This word has multiple meanings, which are sometimes contradictory, including 'impossible, futile, vain, unnecessary, insignificant' and 'to be,
to exist'. The study aims to trace the word's semantic range in historical and modern Turkic languages, identify its dominant meaning and
analyze its morphemic structure.
The analysis is organized into three parts. The first part compiles all occurrences of bolmačï from historical texts of the Karakhanid, Khwarezmian, and Kipchak periods, analyzing the meanings of the lexeme, which are predominantly context-dependent. Furthermore, the interpretations of these meanings proposed by various scholars
are reviewed, and the author offers alternative interpretations in cases where the existing explanations do not correspond to the sentence
context.
The second part investigates the meanings of bolmačï in modern Turkic languages. To determine the dominant meaning and lexicalsemantic variants of the word, explanatory dictionaries of various Turkic languages are consulted. The study finds that the lexeme remains widely used in various forms in Kazakh (bolmačï), Karachay-Balkar (bolmačï), and Urum (bolmačï). In modern Turkic languages, the lexical
meaning of the word varies: 'small', 'few', 'insignificant', 'meaningless', 'empty', 'futile', 'worthless', 'insufficient', 'unnecessary', 'negative', and 'false', among others. The lexical-semantic variants also shift depending
on the context.
The third part of the study analyzes the morphemic structure of
bolmačï, consisting of the root stem bol- (‘to be’) + -ma (a formative
negation affix) + -čï (a derivational affix). Particular attention is
paid to the semantic transformation of the suffix -čï, whose origin
and grammatical function remain the subject of scholarly debate.
Summarizing various academic viewpoints, the author argues that -čï was forms. Throughout the historical development of the Turkic languages, this affix underwent lexicalisation, acquiring a derivational function in the process.
In the conclusion, the author notes observes that bolmačï currently functions as an independent adjective and should be included in Turkic dictionaries as a nominative lexical entry.

This paper examines the evolution of comparative linguistics from its pre-scientific origins to its current status as a sophisticated, digitally-enhanced discipline. The study traces the historical development of comparative linguistics from classical etymological speculation through the establishment of the comparative method in the 19th century to contemporary computational approaches. The research demonstrates how comparative linguistics has transformed from a predominantly qualitative, intuition-based field into a quantitative, data-driven science while maintaining its core objective of understanding language relationships and historical change. Key historical milestones include the formulation of sound laws, the development of systematic reconstruction methods, and the recent integration of computational techniques borrowed from evolutionary biology and computer science. Contemporary trends reveal a field increasingly characterized by interdisciplinary collaboration, big data approaches, and sophisticated statistical modeling, yet still grounded in the fundamental principles established by 19th-century pioneers. The paper concludes that while technological innovations have revolutionized methodological approaches, the essential goals and theoretical foundations of comparative linguistics remain remarkably consistent, suggesting a mature discipline that has successfully adapted to new possibilities while preserving its scientific core.

Oceanic languages, much like the rest of Austronesian, show a propensity to do without any copula when encoding their non-verbal predicates. Their typical profile is "omnipredicative": most of their word classes (adjectives, nouns, pronouns, numerals, adverbs ...) can head a predicate directly, with no need to resort to verbal strategies. Many classes are even "tamophoric", i.e. can inflect for Tense-Aspect-Mood.
This overview of Oceanic languages builds around the system of Mwotlap (Vanuatu), a radical example of these grammatical tendencies. Overall, the Oceanic family reminds us that the properties [predicative] and [tamophoric] are not a privilege of verbs, but can be associated, in principle, with just any word class. __________________________ 
François, Alexandre. 2025. Non-verbal predicates in Oceanic languages. In Pier Marco Bertinetto, Luca Ciucci & Denis Creissels (eds), Non-verbal predication in the world’s languages: A typological survey. Volume 2: Africa, Austronesia, Papunesia, Australia, 1023–1066. (Comparative Handbooks of Linguistics 9.) Berlin: DeGruyter Mouton.

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Русский язык в современном мире: динамика языковых контактов Контакты носителей разных языков -это контакты разных культур, разных картин мира, разных способов концептуализации. Именно поэтому преимущественное внимание при межъязыковых сопоставлениях уделяется содержательному, семантическому анализу. Особенности семантических расхождений межъязыковых омонимов также подчинены общим законам языковой концептуализации человеческих знаний, в частности отражению специфики этой концептуализации в лексической семантике языков. Собственно языковые закономерности организации лексики обнаруживаются и в том, что омонимичными в большинстве случаев являются только отдельные значения сопоставляемых слов, а не лексемы в целом. Содержательное расхождение соответствий устанавливается по: 1. количеству значений и противопоставленности омосемантов полисемантам, ср.: чеш. koryto 1. 'посуда для кормления и поения скота', 2. 'желоб для стока воды', 3. 'русло' -рус. корыто; чеш. sled 1. 'ход, последовательность', 2. воен. 'эшелон' -рус. след; чеш. bývalý 'бывший' -рус. бывалый 1. 'опытный', 2. 'обычный, известный'. 2. противопоставленности омонимов одного языка омосемантам или полисемантам другого, ср. чеш. kok 'шаровидная бактерия'рус. кок 1 'корабельный повар', кок 2 'вид мужской прически', кок 3 'кок, шаровидная бактерия'; чеш. úprava 1. 'урегулирование, упорядочивание', 2. 'обработка, оформление', 3. 'обогащение', 4. 'приготовление' -рус. управа 1 1. 'управа, средство воздействия', 2. истор. 'учреждение в дореволюционной России'. Межъязыковые омонимы и паронимы могут описываться и классифицироваться в зависимости от вида семантических отношений (исключения, пересечения, включения) или семантических различий (лексико-сигнификативные, лексико-стилистические, коннотативные, грамматические). В чешском и русском языках выделяется несколько типов межъязыковых омонимов в зависимости от семантических отношений:

,blutverwandt' [sie] (110 f.). "Wird durch die Wortbildung keine neue Kategorie als ,Satzfunktion ' erzielt" (113, vulgo: Wechsel der Wortart), liegt Modifikation vor -aber fr. xvutsrponmlkj jardinier, maîtresse, brassée, courage, prolétariat, dazu die Präfixbildungen und Komposita? Frequenzwörterbücher erfassen "nur die in der gesprochenen und geschriebenen Sprache über eine hohe Frequenz belegten Wortschatzeinheiten (ca. 7000-10000)" (121). Die sog. expletive Negation bringt "eine mildernde, immerhin positive Aussage" hervor (133, Hervorhebung H. D. B.). Zur Typologie des Altfr. gehört die "morphematische Komparativbildung" (wegen graignour), die l.sg. praes. heißt chante 6 (134). ALF, AIS (139) und ALPI (199) "Nationalatlanten"? G. Rohlfs ist Explorator auch für Mittelitalien (144). Lat. (faber) ferrarium (166). Die "neuen Bezeichnungen [...] néo-français, français avancé" sind "in den letzten Jahren" eingeführt worden (190 f.). "in dem Journal d 'Héroard, dem im 17. Jh. vom Dauphin Louis XIII niedergelegten Tagebuch" (191). Manches scheint zur Erheiterung des Lesers eingefügt, wie das Naturgesetz "dem Blitz folgt ausnahmslos der Donner" (15); "Die ausgereifte Anwendung der junggrammatischen Methode auf das Gebiet der Romanistik erfolgte durch die Bonner Tätigkeit von Friedrich Diez ..." (17); "vor der definitiven (von Caesar in seinem De bello Gallico genau beschriebenen) Ausrottung der keltischen Sprache durch die Römer" (28); "1881 erstes Heft des zwischen 1926 und 1956 herausgegebenen Sprachatlas des Deutschen" (139). Das bisher nicht erwähnte Kapitel V (192-218) fällt "als knappe Anleitung in das Studienfach Romanistik'' (7) aus dem beabsichtigten Rahmen des Buches heraus. Es sollte besser mit Stillschweigen übergangen werden, da sowohl die "Grundbegriffe, die dieses Fach bilden" als auch die "solidefn] Informationen" (ebda.) fehlen. Die Kurzporträts des Vulgärlateins und 18 romanischer "Dach-und Minderheitensprachen" (der Emanzipation der letzteren gilt das -sympathische -Engagement des Autors) sind weithin kaum anders denn als Karikaturen zu verstehen. Es genügt ein Blick auf die unsäglichen 22 Zeilen zum Portugiesischen/Brasilianischen (210) und die abschließende Karte, die ein Schulkind gemalt haben könnte (218) 7 . Hier noch zwei Beispiele für das gai saber: Das Verbot der Einführung des Sardischen in die Schule durch "das Bundesverfassungsgericht" (207) und "Südfrankreich, dessen nördlichste Grenzen etwa von der Gironde senkrecht bis in die Savoyen verlaufen" (213). Wäre das hier angezeigte Produkt ein Auto, würde der Hersteller es wohl vom Markt zurückziehen müssen. Aber da es nur ein Lehrbuch für Studenten ist... Immerhin hätte der Verlag die Chance, das Ansehen, das er in unserem Fach zu Recht genießt, zu erhalten. Marleen Van Peteghem -vutsrponmlihgedcaL Les phrases copulatives dans les langues romanes (pro lingua). Gottfried Egert Verlag, Wilhelmsfeld, 1991. 207 Seiten. Kopulakonstruktionen (phrases copulatives, frasi copulative usw.) stellen in semantischer wie syntaktischer Hinsicht einen besonderen Typ von Sätzen bzw. Äußerungen dar 1 . Während nämlich einerseits auf semantisch-logischer Ebene die Grundform einer zweiteiligen

Numerous studies indicate that consonants are more highly valued for lexical interpretation than vowels because of the richer and more powerful distinctions they can make. Consonants appear to be the most important phoneme for differentiating between lexical items in most language systems. Cross-linguistically, consonants are more common than vowels. The title "The Role Of Vowels And Consonants In English Language Learning" would be better served by a descriptive study. The purpose of this research is to examine how consonants function in language development, with an emphasis on their articulation and acquisition. The purpose of a descriptive study is to provide readers a thorough grasp of the subject of the investigation. Learners who experience immersion language situations or early exposure to English tend to acquire consonants more quickly. It is crucial to remember that every learner is different when it comes to the acquisition of consonants, and some students may find it difficult to make particular sounds correctly. The phonetic variations between the learner's native language and English may have an impact on this, making it harder for them to recognize and produce novel sounds. H Infants must learn words in addition to extracting and generalizing structural regularities that are necessary for learning grammar, such as syntax, in order to acquire language. For example, in order to comprehend the entire statement when we hear, "The girl kicks the boy," we need to know more than simply the definition of each word. The relationship between the verb and the subject and the object must be clear to the listener. Learning words necessitates memorizing particular input elements (girl, boy), such as that, and presenting them in a way that makes it possible to distinguish them from other words (boy vs. toy), whereas learning syntactic structure regularities necessitates being able to infer relationships between input elements. (for example, if the verb comes before or after the object) and apply them to new sentences. Thus, a (partial) "division of labor" that would favorably support vocabulary acquisition in one speech category while focusing more on the identification of structural regularities-particularly those signaling relations between constituents-might be beneficial for young language learners. We will now discuss a number of findings that suggest vowels and consonants have distinct functions in language learning. Specifically, we suggest that because consonants are more suited for category perception than vowels, they are more involved in word identification and encoding. Selkirk, 1984;. In contrast, vowels contain variations in prosody and provide information regarding the boundaries and arrangement of syntactic elements. The Consonant-Vowel hypothesis, often known as the CV hypothesis, is based on the functional distinction between consonants and vowels (Nespor, Peña, &Mehler, 2003). Sianipar, Herman, and Purba, (2022) emphasized that the main communication with individuals in the world is using language. Language is one of the most important aspects of human life, and every aspect is closely related to it; A child learns language for the first time when he is born, directly from his mother or father. Over time, as children grow and develop, they are certain to learn languages other than those taught by their parents, either as a second language. Third, learning a foreign language or another language is called language acquisition, and this depends on the child's cognitive level and the social context during the learning process. (Purba, N. et al. (2020). We utilize language to communicate our feelings and expectations. Language variety has spread throughout the globe, and it's critical to understand how each individual should pronounce their name, particularly when speaking with others (Galingging and Tannuary, 2022). It is undeniable that language is

This paper shows that that differential object marking (DOM) is not a unitary phenomenon, and observes that its two subtypes, differential object flagging (DOF) and differential object indexing (DOI), probably have rather different explanations. The cross-linguistic patterns found with both subtypes of DOM can be described by the scales of referential prominence (animacy, specificity, and so on), but DOI is like differential subject indexing (DSI) in that it conforms to the prominent indexing universal, while differential subject flagging (DSF) shows the mirror-image pattern of DOF: Flagging is preferred when the subject is not prominent on one of the prominence scales. The paper provides examples from a wide variety of languages showing that indexing behaves rather differently from flagging. Thus, DOM is not a unified phenomenon, as was already noted by Siewierska (2004) and some earlier authors.

Construction Grammar is a linguistic framework which postulates that all grammar is based on a single entity, the construction, defined as 'an arbitrary and conventional pairing of form… and meaning' (Hoffmann and Trousdale 2013:1). This article presents a Construction Grammar account of Zulu nouns and their singular/plural inflection. It describes the canonical singular/plural paradigms for Zulu nouns, and also those that are aberrant in terms of their morphology or their expected pairing. Finally, it presents the forms that arise owing to phonological alternations, thus suggesting how phonology might be handled in the framework of Construction Grammar.

زبان‌های دنیا، با روش‌های مختلف مفهوم جمع را نشان‌دار می‌کند. تعدادی از این روش‌ها ساختواژی، تعدادی نحوی و بعضی واژگانی هستند. پرسش این تحقیق آنست که در زبان تاتی، از مجموع زبان‌های ایرانی شاخۀ شمال‌غربی، مفهوم جمع به چه روشی بیان می‌شود؟ زبان تاتی مورد بررسی این پژوهش، گونۀ دروی از گونه‌های تاتی رایج در روستای درو derav از روستاهای بخش شاهرود خلخال است. در این زبان، روش‌های ساختواژی، ساختواژی- نحوی، مطابقۀ فعلی و مطابقۀ ضمیری، مضاعف‌سازی، ترکیب و نیز روش واژگانی برای بیان مفهوم شمار جمع به کار می‌روند. داده‌های این تحقیق به روش میدانی جمع‌آوری شده و در تحلیل از شّم زبانی نگارنده که خود گویشور تاتی است، نیز استفاده شده است. در این زبان، نام‌های خانوادگی و نیز اندام‌های بدن، هر کدام روش خاصی برای بیان جمع دارند که در هیچ بافت دیگری آن روش به کار نمی‌رود. رعایت ساخت ارگتیو در این گویش باعث شده، اسم‌ها و ضمایر جمع دو شکل فاعلی و غیرفاعلی داشته باشند. مطابقه فعلی و ضمیری در این گویش اجباری است. تعدادی از روش‌های بیان جمع در این گویش مختص انسان است و برای اشیاء و جاندار به کار نمی‌رود. شمار در این زبان یک مقولۀ دستوری اجباری است و رعایت نکردنش موجب بدساختی می‌شود.

In this article, we examine an Iranian secret language based on the regional Tati language. We investigate the specific features of this professional argot, known as Arranaji or Qarqadili, which is common in the villages of northwestern Iran where Tati dialects are spoken. This secret language was traditionally used by seasonal workers engaged in cutting and processing wood in the urban centers of northern Iran, particularly in the Gilan and Mazandaran regions. We identify the distinctive characteristics of Arranaji, which is based on the Tati dialects of the villages of Karnaq and Lerd but employs a substitute lexicon that differs significantly from standard Tati vocabulary. The woodcutters and carpenters who used Arranaji-men who lived apart from their home communities for extended periods within a closed male environment-developed a euphemistic vocabulary and coded expressions related to their professional activities, gender roles, drugs, and sociocultural taboos and prohibitions. This linguistic variety existed solely in oral form and had never been previously documented. Through our fieldwork, we analyze its vocabulary, explore the reasons for the emergence of this argot and its linguistic properties, and examine its use within the community, its geographical distribution, primary functions, as well as its professional and gender-specific characteristics. Additionally, we discuss the etymology and significance of the names Arranaji and Qarqadili. Finally, we address the reasons for the decline of the original professional functions and gender restrictions of this secret language under contemporary conditions, and its continued use as a familial code to keep information hidden from outsiders and children.

Ideophones are a class of words which occur in many languages throughout the world, but are relatively uncommon in English. Though often mimetic, ideophones are not to be confused with onomatopoeia since they extend well beyond the narrow scope of sound only symbolism. In the past, ideophones have been difficult for linguists to categorize and understand due to their limited usage in many of their native European languages. These words are marked due to their divergent phonology, morphology, syntax, or all of the above. Ideophones often vividly depict one or more sensory events, ranging from sight to emotion. This paper will discuss this class of words as they appear in Manyika Shona, a dialect of Shona spoken in Eastern Zimbabwe by about 1,025,000 people.

In archaic Greece writing supplemented existing oral and semiotic practices, and reading involved interpreting meaning from non-alphabetic signs rather than decoding phonetic elements. In such an oral culture, reading written words was understood as visual listening, or "earsight" in which hearing spoken words was akin to visually perceiving them. A debated outcome of this perception is the Greek verb ἀκούω (literally 'to hear') to mean 'to read' as seen in expressions such as οἱ ἀκούοντες ('readers of a book') and the later idiomatic locution ἤκουσα Χ λέγοντος, meaning 'I have read X in a book'. The rise of multimodal reading practices today, like audiobooks, presents us with a similar problem showing limitations of a reading theory that exclusively focuses on the graphic substance of letters. Cognitive and neurocognitive research supports the intertwined roles of sight and hearing in language perception, confirming that semantic processing occurs independently of sensory modality. As well as raising questions about the way multimodal transformations influence the way we read today, this article also aims to problematise how individuals in the past created representations of what was to be read when writing was accessible through other preferred perceptual channels.

This thesis augments the Nestle 1904 Greek New Testament Text-Fabric dataset (N1904-TF) by systematically incorporating every plausible morphological analysis for each word token, as generated by the Morpheus analyser for Ancient Greek. Rather than adjudicating between parses, the project makes ambiguity explicit, structured, and accessible through a reproducible processing pipeline built on a custom Python package (Morphkit).

The extension (N1904addons) adds over one thousand new Text-Fabric features across three levels: word-level diagnostics, lemma-grouped variants, and detailed Morpheus parses. A similarity metric ranks alternatives against the original annotation, while entropy-based measures and phrase-level models capture how morphological ambiguity affects interpretation.

Fully integrated into the Text-Fabric environment, this open-source extension enables efficient querying, visualization, and analysis of morphosyntactic alternatives. Demonstrated through empirical use cases, it advances transparent grammatical study and supports both theological and linguistic research by making ambiguity visible and measurable.

Diachronic explanations for exceptional word order patterns: Initial polar question markers and OV in Nepali 'Can I land here?' (Zamponi & Comrie 2020: 252) PQ and how this might be connected with other parts of the language work in progress that is not yet published, comments welcome Andreas Hölzl & Dubi Nanda Dhakal Diachronic explanations for exceptional word order patterns: Initial polar question markers and OV in Nepali Introduction Correlations Diachrony Conclusion References Cross-linguistic correlations previous approaches tried to find correlations between question marking and other domains like adpositions Greenberg 1963: 64, my emphasis "With well more than chance frequency, when question particles or affixes are specified in position by reference to the sentence as a whole, if initial, such elements are found in prepositional languages, and, if final, in postpositional. " Ultan 1978: 228, my emphasis "when the QP [question particle] is clause-initial (or enclitic to the initial constituent, the verb almost always precedes the object in a normal declarative statement; when the QP is final, the verb may precede or follow the object -final QP tend to be much more common in postpositional languages" however, there is no direct correlation with adpositions (which would be unexpected) here, we will look at the connection between PQ marking and basic word order Andreas Hölzl & Dubi Nanda Dhakal Diachronic explanations for exceptional word order patterns: Initial polar question markers and OV in Nepali 'Are you not a linguist?' PQ previous descriptions of Nepali only briefly mention questions in passing (e.g.

Despite being essential tools in linguistic interaction across languages and cultures, interjections and liminal signs (non-word sounds with a communicative function) are most of the time left out of language descriptions, or at best confined to a short appendix, and consequently rather poorly documented. This trend has started to change in recent years (e.g., Ameka 1991, 1992a, b, Amha 2013, Dingemanse 2020a, 2021). This paper is meant to contribute toward the inflection of this trend by offering the first description of aspects of the liminal system of Babanki, a Grassfields language of the Ring subgroup in NorthWest Cameroon. This study is based mostly on the introspective knowledge of the first author, a native speaker of Babanki, supplemented by WhatsApp discussions with five other native speakers. Following Jakobson (1960), Ameka (1992a), and Dingemanse (2021), we classify the Babanki liminal signs in three types of semantico-pragmatic functions, namely, phatic, conative, and expressive. The use of clicks and various phonotactically odd structures in the liminal system implies that they are part of the phonological system of the language and should be included in its grammatical description. They clearly serve a different function from the contrastive sounds of the language, and consequently ought to be presented as a separate inventory.

Some languages constrain the recursive embedding of NPs to some specific morphosyntactic types, allowing it, for example, only with genitives but not with bare juxtaposition. In Indo-European, every type of NP embedding-genitives, adjectivizers, adpositions, head marking, or juxtaposition-is unavailable for syntactic recursion in at least one attested language. In addition, attested pathways of change show that NP types that allow recursion can emerge and disappear in less than 1,000 years. This wide-ranging synchronic diversity and its high diachronic dynamics raise the possibility that at many hypothetical times in the history of the family recursive NP embedding could have been lost for all types simultaneously, parallel to what has occasionally been observed elsewhere . Performing Bayesian phylogenetic analyses on a sample of fifty-five languages from all branches of Indo-European, we show, however, that it is extremely unlikely for such a complete loss to ever have occurred. When one or more morphosyntactic types become unavailable for syntactic recursion in an NP, an unconstrained alternative type is very likely to develop in the same language. This suggests that, while diachronic pathways away from NP recursion clearly exist, there is a tendency-perhaps a universal one-to maintain or develop syntactic recursion in NPs. A likely explanation for this evolutionary bias is that recursively embedded phrases are not just an option that languages have ), but they are in fact preferred by our processing system.*