Economic Development

El presente informe se encuentra dividido en cinco capítulos que muestran, gráficamente, el comportamiento de cinco sectores económicos en el municipio de Girardot, capital de la provincia del Alto Magdalena en el departamento de Cundinamarca (Colombia) en el periodo 1990-2020.

En el primer capítulo, se muestra el comportamiento del sector primario de la economía que se encuentra agrupado en la sección A de la CIIU. Un sector que incluye actividades económicas de extracción de materias primas sin realizar procesos de transformación de estas. En el segundo capítulo, se muestra el comportamiento del sector secundario de la economía (exceptuando la industria manufacturera) que se encuentra agrupado en las secciones B, D, E y F de la CIIU.

El tercer capítulo, muestra el comportamiento de la industria manufacturera que se encuentra agrupada en la sección C de la CIIU. Una industria que comprende la transformación física o química sobre materiales, sustancias o componentes de productos nuevos (CIIU, 2020). El cuarto capitulo, muestra el comportamiento del sector terciario de la economía que se encuentra agrupado en las secciones G, H, I, K, L, S, T y U de la CIIU. Finalmente, el quinto capitulo muestra el comportamiento del sector
cuaternario que se encuentra agrupado en las secciones J, M, N, O, P, Q y R de la CIIU.

Ecotourism is broadly recognized as a responsible type of tourism centered on nature and environmental conservation. As one of the most rapidly expanding sectors of the global industry, ecotourism distinguishes itself from its conventional counterpart by aiming to reduce environmental harm and provide direct benefits to conservation and local populations (UNWTO and UNEP, 2002). It works towards enhancing the welfare of local communities and building awareness by educating and interpreting experiences for both tourists and residents (TIES, 2015). It has also become closely linked to the establishment and management of protected areas, which serve as vital spaces for conserving biodiversity and natural heritage. Protected areas, such as national parks and nature reserves, in turn, play a vital role in ecotourism by offering visitors opportunities to enjoy nature through activities like hiking, birdwatching, and guided walks (Fennell, 2020). Tourism in protected areas can provide significant economic benefits to local communities and national economies. However, from an environmental perspective, increased tourist activity can lead to habitat degradation, pollution, and heightened pressure on fragile ecosystems if not carefully managed (Buckley, 2009). While ecotourism is often framed as a sustainable solution, this promise depends entirely on how it is regulated. In the absence of clear land-use legislative and development frameworks, ecotourism can be misused to legitimize unsustainable practices, undermining both environmental protection and the credibility of the sector.

The Nigerian economy dependency on oil proceeds is inimical to sustainability of Nigerian economy, as such; diversifying the economy towards non-oil sectors becomes necessary. However, there are factors that affect the activities of these sectors including macroeconomic pressures. Hence, this study is carried out to examine the effect of macroeconomic variables on non-oil exports as way of diversify economy in Nigeria from 1990 to 2021. The study adopted descriptive research design and time series data were sourced from Central Bank of Nigeria, and Nigeria Bureau of Statistics (NBS) and World Bank Development data base. ARDL Error Correction Model and Long-run Error Correction Model were used to establish the relationship among the variables. The result found that real interest rate (-0.051; P-value 0.00<0.05), exchange rate (-0.009; P-value 0.00<0.05), capital expenditure (-0.435; Pvalue 0.02<0.05), and public debts (-0.605; P-value 0.00<0.05) have significant negative relationship with non-oil exports in Nigeria. Also, tax revenue (1.7552; P-value 0.00<0.05) and broad money supply (M2) (1.008; P-value 0.00<0.05) have significant positive relationship with non-oil exports in Nigeria. While oil revenue (0.086; P-value 0.345>0.05) have positive but insignificant relationship with non-oil exports in Nigeria. It is therefore concluded that macroeconomic variables through broad money supply (M2), real interest rate, exchange rate, and tax revenues have significantly impact on non-oil exports in Nigeria. The study recommended among others that both monetary and fiscal policy measures should be harmonized to encourage and support continuous investments in the productive non-oil sectors in Nigeria so as to achieve the envisaged economic diversification through the sectors.

This study examines the effectiveness of carbon markets, with a particular focus on Emission Trading Systems (ETS), in advancing global commitments to net-zero emissions by 2050. Employing a High-Dimensional Fixed Effects (HDFE) regression framework, it investigates the interplay between carbon emissions, economic dynamics, and policy interventions across diverse national contexts, including Mainland China,

The thesis examines women entrepreneurs to influence women's empowerment in society with the help of a government organization known as the Joyeeta Foundation. This thesis is about the effect of entrepreneurs on the way to the entrepreneurship development program offered by the Joyeeta Foundation. It follows to measure the entrepreneurship development arrangements by the government of Bangladesh for women. In accomplishing the objectives, primary and secondary data were used for the findings. This thesis follows the qualitative method. Primary data was collected from in-person interviews and secondary data was collected from different sources like news and journals. I collected data about the services and arrangements of their women's entrepreneurial processes. A pre-structured questionnaire was used to collect data through face-to-face interviews with three selected groups of people. 4 established and 4 potential entrepreneurs were interviewed for the thesis. This thesis proposes inspiration for empowering women and inspiring them to choose the path of entrepreneurship. This thesis will also provide directions on how to decrease obstacles to women's entrepreneurship and development in Bangladesh.

The present analysis, which exploits one of the first empirical data collected from smallholders in Sierra Leone since the end of the civil war, compares the impact of two poverty reduction strategies targeting smallholders in Sierra Leone: support to rice production is compared with support to coffee and cocoa production in terms of sustainable income generation and contributing to macroeconomic stability and growth. Supporting rice production is intended to help the country regain self-sufficiency in its traditional principle staple. This will help towards improving food security and reducing dependency on volatile world market prices which, for example, with respect to the recent global spike has had dramatic effects on the lowest incomes. Support to cocoa and coffee production on the other hand aims to create and increase income by producing exportable commodities with higher value added. This research addresses strategic options most successful in improving food security and ac...

This paper describes a methodology for assessing and quantifying vulnerability and resilience of mountain communities in Eastern Nepal increasingly affected by landslides and flooding. We are interested in improving our understanding of the complex interactions between land use, landslides and multiple dimensions of risk, vulnerability and resilience to better target risk management strategies. Our approach is based on assessing underlying social, ecological and physical factors that cause vulnerability and on the other hand, those resources and capacities that increase resilience.

It is also important to note that with both assignments and licences, copyright can be divided in a number of ways, including by territory, time and type of use. For example, a licence can give a person permission to reproduce a work, without giving permission to publish or communicate the work. Similarly, a licence may give a publisher the right to publish the material only in Australia, or only until a certain date. The various licensing models for managing access to research findings are outlined in 'Open Access and Open Content Licensing' below. 73 Alma Swan and Sheridan Brown, (2005) Open access self-archiving: An author study.

نابرابری اجتماعی چالشی دیرینه در جوامع بشری است که ریشه در دسترسی نابرابر به قدرت، ثروت و منزلت دارد. پیشرفت علم، صنعت و روابط اجتماعی این نابرابری‌ها را پیچیده‌تر کرده و منجر به درگیری‌ها، بحران‌ها و بی‌عدالتی‌ها شده است. قرآن کریم به‌عنوان منبع هدایت، راهبردهای فرهنگی برای مواجهه با این نابرابری‌ها ارائه می‌دهد و چارچوب‌های فکری و عملی برای جامعه‌ای عادلانه و مطلوب ترسیم می‌کند. تحقق چنین جامعه‌ای بدون آگاهی‌بخشی، معرفت آموزی و دگرگونی نظام فرهنگی، امکان‌پذیر نیست. این پژوهش با استفاده از داده های قرآنی و روش توصیفی- تحلیلی با هدف تبیین راهبردهای فرهنگی قرآن در مقابله با نابرابری های اجتماعی نگارش یافته است. بر این اساس راهبردهای کلیدی فرهنگی قرآنی عبارت‌اند از: اصلاحات بینشی به معنای تمرکز بر اصلاح نگرش و درک انسان نسبت به خود که شامل تأکید بر کرامت ذاتی هر فرد، برابری در اصل آفرینش، هدف و حکمت خلقت و حقوق برابر زن و مرد است. این رویکرد، مفاهیم برتری نژادی یا قومی را رد می‌کند؛ اصلاحات ارزشی به معنای اصلاح نظام ارزشی جامعه از طریق جایگزینی معیارهای سطحی مانند ثروت و قدرت با ارزش‌های اصیل اسلامی چون ایمان، تقوا، علم و جهاد. این امر به ایجاد سلسله‌مراتب اجتماعی عادلانه کمک می‌کند؛ اصلاحات اجتماعی به معنای تبیین نگرش درست به قدرت و ثروت به‌عنوان ابزارهایی برای خدمت به خلق، مبارزه با فساد و دفاع از مظلومان و نیز ارائهی راهکارهایی برای کاهش انباشت ثروت و گردش عادلانه آن با هدف جلوگیری از ایجاد شکاف‌های اقتصادی. بر این اساس میتوان نتیجه گرفت نابرابری اجتماعی در جامعهی توحیدی ناشی از عدم هماهنگی بین باورها، ارزش‌ها و ساختارهای سیاسی-اقتصادی با آموزه‌های دینی و راهبردهای فرهنگی پیش‌گفته است. دستیابی به تمدن نوین اسلامی و جامعه‌ای عادلانه، نیازمند تربیت افراد از طریق اصلاحات فرهنگی و تحول بنیادین در باورها و ارزش‌های آنان است. رویکرد قرآن به برابری، به معنای یکسان‌سازی مطلق نیست بلکه تفاوت‌های ناشی از استعدادها و تلاش‌ها به رسمیت شناخته میشود و بر عدالت و تعادل تأکید دارد.

Fiscal policy has long been a central tool in addressing income inequality in India. Despite sustained efforts through taxation and public expenditure, disparities continue across regions, social groups, and income levels. This paper examines key fiscal instruments progressive and indirect taxation, welfare programmes, and subsidies and assesses their effectiveness in redistributing income. While progressive income taxes are intended to place a greater burden on high earners, indirect taxes such as the Goods and Services Tax (GST) tend to be regressive. Public spending on initiatives like MGNREGA, food security, education, and healthcare has benefitted lower-income populations, though administrative inefficiencies constrain their impact. Empirical data from 1950 to 2024, the study underscores the continued concentration of wealth among the top 10% of the population, driven in part by tax avoidance and the informal economy. Case studies of Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Maharashtra illustrate varied outcomes of redistributive efforts. The analysis concludes that while fiscal measures have contributed to poverty reduction, deeper structural reforms are necessary to address entrenched economic inequality.

In developing nations GDP is not considered an adequate proxy of development. The per capita income, the quality of life , level of education are considered more relevant parameters of overall development. Economists, planners and researchers have been deliberating on this issue until in 1990 UNDP published Human Development Index [HDI] for all nations in its HDR report [6]. Although there have been several studies in this regard, however a machine learning based econometric model is not yet available which can establish the inter-relationship amongst these two variables in a quantified manner. This paper is an attempt in this direction to develop a model using machine learning approach .The model is implemented using Neural Network toolbox on MATLAB platform[10] with statistical data available from Planning Commission ,India and HDR report of UNDP. The model implementation result is found to be satisfactory. The methodology shown in this paper will be useful in preparing economic p...

http://migratingoutofpoverty.dfid.gov.uk/ Introduction and background Zimbabwe is experiencing ongoing migration from rural areas to destinations both within and outside the country (Bracking and Sachikonye, 2010). International destinations include South Africa and Botswana, as well as Europe and the Americas. It is estimated that over 3.5 million Zimbabweans are living in South Africa alone (Chereni and Bongo, 2018). The transformative potential and economic value of this mobility for Zimbabweans has been questioned, however. While some scholars indicate that remittance flows have a significant impact on gross domestic product (Christiansen et al., 2006; Awumbila, Owusu and Teye, 2014), others argue that the impacts of migration at the household level do not match those at the macro level (Tevera, Crush and Chikanda, 2010). Studies in this latter tradition have not indicated the nature of the policy interventions required to make migration more beneficial to migrant-sending househ...

Investors expect money market unit trust schemes to deliver above-market financial returns, relying on the expertise of
professional managers. However, many of these schemes struggle to consistently outperform the market, leading to diminished
portfolios and missed investment opportunities. This underperformance can be attributed to various factors, including
inappropriate benchmark selection, inefficient management practices, high operational costs, and potential conflicts of interest
within certain institutional affiliations. To address these challenges, investors should carefully evaluate the performance of unit
trusts against relevant benchmarks, consider the impact of management fees on net returns, and assess the ability of funds to
generate real returns in different inflationary environments. Fund managers may need to reform their operational structures,
enhance investment strategies, and optimize fee structures to improve performance and attract investors. The study aimed to
investigate how benchmarks impact unit trust yields in Kenya. The research was guided by a conceptual framework that
posited relationships between these variables and unit trust yields. The study employed an explanatory research methodology,
utilizing panel data analysis over the period from 2013 to 2022. Data were collected from secondary sources, including Capital
Markets Authority, Central Bank of Kenya, Kenya National Bureau of Statistics, and unit trust performance reports. The
empirical review of existing literature informed the study's hypotheses and provided context for interpreting the results. The
findings revealed that benchmarks significantly influenced the yield of money market unit trusts in Kenya. Money market
funds affiliated with independent institutions and insurance companies exhibited higher yields compared to bank-affiliated
funds. Benchmarks such as bank deposit rates, 182-Day Treasury Bill, and 364-Day Treasury Bill were positively related to
fund yields. Based on these findings, the study recommends that fund managers carefully evaluate their institutional structures
and closely monitor relevant benchmarks. Regulators should ensure fair competition and transparency in the industry, while
investors should consider benchmark performance when selecting money market unit trusts.

Mahatma Gandhi has often been called by his critics a reactionary. The more generous of his critics have described him revivalist. Between reactionary and revivalist, the idea of alternative modernity and civilizational alternative have evolved. Philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi does not reject modernity-it reconstructs it on ethical, ecological, and spiritual foundations. It envisions a form of "alternative modernity" that combines technology with morality, progress with simplicity, and freedom with selfdiscipline. The very idea of alternative modernity encompasses the foundation of civilizational alternative of Gandhiji. Gandhi's alternative civilization is a holistic paradigm emphasizing self-rule, non-violence, simple living, and a harmonious coexistence with nature, rejecting the materialistic, industrial, centralized model of civilization.

Improving survival and extending the longevity of life for all populations requires timely, robust evidence on local mortality levels and trends. The Global Burden of Disease 2015 Study (GBD 2015) provides a comprehensive assessment of all-cause and cause-specific mortality for 249 causes in 195 countries and territories from 1980 to 2015. These results informed an in-depth investigation of observed and expected mortality patterns based on sociodemographic measures. We estimated all-cause mortality by age, sex, geography, and year using an improved analytical approach originally developed for GBD 2013 and GBD 2010. Improvements included refinements to the estimation of child and adult mortality and corresponding uncertainty, parameter selection for under-5 mortality synthesis by spatiotemporal Gaussian process regression, and sibling history data processing. We also expanded the database of vital registration, survey, and census data to 14 294 geography-year datapoints. For GBD 2015...

Many low income countries in Africa are optimistic that producing biofuels domestically will not only reduce their dependence on imported fossil fuels, but also stimulate economic development, particularly in poorer rural areas. Skeptics, on the other hand, view biofuels as a threat to food security in the region and as a landgrabbing opportunity for foreign investors. As a result of this ongoing debate, national biofuels task forces have been asked to evaluate both the viability of domestic biofuels production and its broader implications for economic development. To guide these complex evaluations, this paper presents an analytical framework that prioritizes ….

Many low income countries in Africa are optimistic that producing biofuels domestically will not only reduce their dependence on imported fossil fuels, but also stimulate economic development, particularly in poorer rural areas. Skeptics, on the other hand, view biofuels as a threat to food security in the region and as a landgrabbing opportunity for foreign investors. As a result of this ongoing debate, national biofuels task forces have been asked to evaluate both the viability of domestic biofuels production and its broader implications for economic development. To guide these complex evaluations, this paper presents an analytical framework that prioritizes ….

Background: Random sample surveys of the population are time consuming and expensive, particularly if international sampling is planned. Method: The Healthcare Access Panel was developed as an alternative to face to face or telephone health survey interviews to estimate prevalence or even incidence rates of health-relevant variables in the population. It is the objective of this paper to demonstrate the validity of health-related data obtained with the Healthcare Access Panel compared with results from other, population-based data sources. The example is Germany, where the Panel consists of more than 78,000 individuals aged between 0 and 79 years. Results: The Healthcare Access Panel reflects the population concerning age, sex, and regional structure with a good correlation. The hospitalisation rate obtained with the Panel matches the official National Hospital Discharge Statistics. Annual consultations with major medical disciplines were found to be almost identical in the Healthcare Access Panel as compared with the German National Health Survey (GNHS). The Healthcare Access Panel data matched the GNHS prevalence results of self-reported medical conditions/diseases. Advantages and disadvantages of the Healthcare Access Panel compared with specially designed population field surveys are discussed. Conclusion: It is worthwhile to consider the Healthcare Access Panel approach as a cost-effective alternative to other population-based data collection methods under many circumstances, i.e. considering the specific methodological pros and cons as necessary for any other method.

Random sample surveys of the population are time consuming and expensive, particularly if international sampling is planned. The Healthcare Access Panel was developed as an alternative to face to face or telephone health survey interviews to estimate prevalence or even incidence rates of health-relevant variables in the population. It is the objective of this paper to demonstrate the validity of health-related data obtained with the Healthcare Access Panel compared with results from other, population-based data sources. The example is Germany, where the Panel consists of more than 78,000 individuals aged between 0 and 79 years. The Healthcare Access Panel reflects the population concerning age, sex, and regional structure with a good correlation. The hospitalisation rate obtained with the Panel matches the official National Hospital Discharge Statistics. Annual consultations with major medical disciplines were found to be almost identical in the Healthcare Access Panel as compared w...

The needs of various lighting systems and transport increasing every day in the world and in developing countries such as Mozambique, therefore, several motor vehicles increase, while the conventional fuels such as fossil diesel will getting scarcer gradually with time. In this case, there is a need to study alternatives that can cope with conventional fuels. The purpose of this experimental study is to evaluate the effect of the blend kerosene along with biodiesel from Jatropha Curcas in the single cylinder diesel engine generator coupled to lamps and small electric stoves. Experimental analysis was carried out to verify the performance and exhaust emissions of the diesel engine generator, using various blends of kerosene with biodiesel from Jatropha Curcas in proportions of 20% – 100% biodiesel and under the conditions of 0 – 3.75 kW of different loads. The results under various parameters were believed to the vicinity of fossil diesel. Different parameters of performance and emis...

In 19th century Britain the concatenation of technological innovation, entrepreneurship and the rise of urban centres led to a complete transformation of its economy in what we now call the industrial revolution. This eventually expanded and transformed the whole world. Economic transition across the globe since then has demanded conditions similar to what prevailed in Britain during the industrial revolution. The experience of most successful countries in recent history, whether it be Japan, Korea or China, suggests that successful urbanisation-which led to the concentration of markets, labour, capital, innovators and entrepreneurs-allowed these nations to lift themselves by their bootstraps. With few exceptions, thriving nations have been lifted by their urban cores; their cities stand as both a testament to their success and as engines of their economic ascent.

Several individuals helped me successfully complete the research and writing of this dissertation through their encouragement, technical assistance, and other forms of valuable support. I owe my deepest gratitude to Professor Robert Eastwood, who provided extremely helpful support and offered valuable suggestions and comments throughout the writing of this dissertation. I am indebted to him for his invaluable guidance and encouragement over the years. Very special thanks go to Drs. Mukti Upadhyay, Alex Mourmouras, Alain D'hoore, and William Carrington for their persistent and insightful support and help. Special appreciation to

Several individuals helped me successfully complete the research and writing of this dissertation through their encouragement, technical assistance, and other forms of valuable support. I owe my deepest gratitude to Professor Robert Eastwood, who provided extremely helpful support and offered valuable suggestions and comments throughout the writing of this dissertation. I am indebted to him for his invaluable guidance and encouragement over the years. Very special thanks go to Drs. Mukti Upadhyay, Alex Mourmouras, Alain D'hoore, and William Carrington for their persistent and insightful support and help. Special appreciation to

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A view of the appropriate role of community colleges in the transfer of technology to business and industry is presented in thiS paper. Introductory,material defines technology transfer as a strategy integrating kndwledge of the latest technological practices, procedures for their implementation, tactics for their integration into existing delivery systems, and evaluation designs to measure the achievement of technological mastery. Further, the introduction discusses the role of colleges in selecting delivery systems to transfer innovations to *business and industry. Next, the technology adaptaion project of the National Center for Research in Vocational Education iS described, Using Hagerstown Junior College's (HJC's) programs as examples, the following settion discusses modes of transferring technology, including: (1) the translation of technical knowledge into information about operational tactics; f() the installation and application of new hardware; and (3) contracts for the delivery of technological services. After a discussion of the transfer of appropriate technologies to the production setting, barriers to successful transfer (e.g., costs and lack of information) are identified. Finally, strategic issues related to the location of businesses and industries and the level of mastery of previously developed technologies are presented. (HB) .

Community colleges, because of their strategic placement within the community, are particularly well-suited to becoming catalysts in the problem-solving process of the community by performing the research which underlies community development. Social science faculty, given their methodological training, community orientation, and teaching focus, are the logical individuals to become community development agents. Students can serve as inexpensive data collection personnel. The community development process must begin with a careful definition of the community problem, project objectives designed to assist in the solution, and project evaluation criteria. Cooperation with community agencies must be sought, and the expectations of these agencies must be met. Hagerstown Junior College's cooperation with the local YMCA, the county school board, and a number of other community agencies serve as examples of college/community partnership in community problem solving. (JDS) c--

Á minha mãe Ernestina Ferreira Alves e ao meu pai Dejair Alves (in memorian) e aos meus irmãos Jean e Douglas. A Deus que sempre esteve em meu caminho me guiando e me mostrando o quão é maravilhoso o mundo do conhecimento, por jamais ter me deixado desanimar em meu caminho e sempre que estive em dificuldades lá estava Ele para me ajudar. À minha mãe e ao meu pai, que sempre estiveram ao meu lado guiando os meus passos e me aconselhando. Às minhas amigas Ângela e Carol. À minha orientadora Anna Diva pela acolhida e apoio dedicado. À minha coorientadora Mara Lúcia pela dedicação e desprendimento em nosso trabalho. Aos meus colegas de laboratório Cícero, Thays e Júnior pela torcida e os conselhos. A CAPES pelo apoio financeiro.

the context of globalization, emphasizing equity financing as a preferable alternative to debt financing. It takes into account, how Islamic financing can help developed and developing countries to build a new world order that would be based on tranquility, cooperation, mutual help, sharing, and caring by relying more on equity financing than on debt financing. The present study discusses the repercussions of interest based debt on global economy and the need of Islamic finance to bloom economies of developed and developing countries at global level by avoiding channels of exploitative practices like interest, debt-trap, inequality of wealth, etc. which eventually leads nations into poverty, debt, abject hunger, and unemployment. The study also examines why the debt relief packages provided to underdeveloping countries by developed nations have not successfully helped to address the issues of debt trap and in equality of wealth. Furthermore, the study reviews, whether Islamic finance exclusively serves the interests of Muslims only or benefits the whole humanity without any discrimination of caste creed, color, region and religion.

Este trabajo de investigación pretende poner sobre la palestra contadas razones por las que el capital no fluye adecuadamente cuesta abajo, es decir, hacia los países más pobres o subdesarrollados, de allí que el objetivo general del trabajao de investigación fue analizar las paradojas y las razones por las cuales el capital tiende a concentrarse en niveles socioeconómicos altos y en regiones más desarrolladas, a través de una revisión bibliográfica de la literatura existente. Para llevar a cabo dicho propósito se recoge información documental bibliográfica que permite al lector analizar las razones por las que existe escasa movilidad de los capitales hacia los países pobres contraviniendo el principio microeconómico de la productividad marginal y de la escasez – valor, o el problema de conocimiento acorde con las Escuela Austriaca de Economía. En las conclusiones se devela que tanto las diferencias que se presentan en el capital humano de los países pobres y ricos, así como las consecuentes externalidades de dicho capital impiden su movilidad tanto como las trabas que imponen los países pobres con el fin de proteger sus incipientes economías, se acota también que existen imperfecciones estructurales que garantizar dicha falta de movilidad.

El presenta trabajo de investigación está orientando a identificar las variables económico y financieras que afectan el valor de Minsur y el valor de sus acciones, mediante el método del flujo de caja libre descontado, y hacer un análisis de sensibilidad univariable y multivariable ( con el análisis Monte Carlo). De las variables económicas se seleccionó aquellas que tenían mayor correlación con el precio de los minerales y se estableció una ecuación por el móldelo de regresión múltiple para el precio de cada mineral de los que vende Minsur. Las variables económicas seleccionadas fueron: PMI de china, el Índex Dólar, Etf que refleja el rendimiento del bono del tesoro de EEUU a 20 años (muy relacionada a la tasa de interés de la Fed), la tasa de desempleo de EEUU, índice de producción industrial de EEUU y los inventarios de Cobre. Para recabar dicha información las principales fuentes fueron, Cochilco Chile, Investing, Banco Central de Reserva, datos Macr

households fall into or climb out of poverty traps (Zimmerman and Carter 2003; Carter and Barrett 2006), as well as for the level and distribution of income in the overall economy (Banerjee and Newman 1993; Aghion and Bolton 1997). Considering the potentially far-reaching consequences of credit constraints suggested by theory, empirical evidence that effectively identifies the causal impacts of the multiple potential forms of credit constraints is relatively scarce. The lagged response of the empirical literature can be attributed, in part, to the challenge of econometrically identifying the impact of credit constraints. Ideally (at least from an economist's point of view) the economist would analyze a situation in which individuals, households, or firms are randomly, or exogenously, assigned to be either credit constrained or unconstrained. Differences in outcomes, such as the probability of starting a business, the level of investment and profit, or the smoothness of consumption, could then be clearly attributed to the credit constraint. Recently, several researchers have proceeded along this line of randomization. Banerjee and Duflo ( ) use an exogenous change in credit policy in India that increased the supply of credit to medium-sized firms to achieve identification. Karlan and Zinman ( ) take a more direct approach. They worked with a consumer lender in South Africa to run an experiment whereby a randomly selected group of loan applicants who would normally be rejected were instead offered loans. A third example of this randomization approach comes from research underway by de Mel, McKenzie, and Woodruff (2008) in Sri Lanka, in which the authors randomly select a group of microentrepreneurs to receive a gift of capital, either in the form of machinery or cash. Again, a comparison of profit and investment across the lucky recipients versus the unlucky nonrecipients can identify the impact of credit constraints. While policy and field experiments provide a clean way of gauging the impacts of credit constraints, their use is still relatively limited. Relevant policy experiments are extremely rare, and field experiments, while having great promise, are fraught with their own challenges of design, implementation, financing, and generalizability. Beginning with papers by Feder et al. (1990) and Jappelli (1990), several authors have followed an alternative approach that relies on more conventional survey-based research, albeit with a methodological twist. This "twist" consists of adding a set of questions that directly elicits the household's or firm's status as either credit constrained or unconstrained. With the observed separation of the sample into those that are constrained versus unconstrained, the researcher can directly evaluate the impacts of credit constraints on the efficiency of resource allocation. Examples of this approach, which we call the direct elic-

As manifestações expressas por integrantes dos quadros da Fundação Getulio Vargas, nas quais constem a sua identificação como tais, em artigos e entrevistas publicados nos meios de comunicação em geral, representam exclusivamente as opiniões dos seus autores e não, necessariamente, a posição institucional da FGV.

This paper explores the sources of international development finance, focusing on bilateral and multilateral aid, and non-governmental organization (NGO) funding. It examines the different types of aid, including tied aid, military aid, humanitarian aid, and general community development assistance, highlighting their advantages and disadvantages. The paper argues that while aid can be beneficial, it is often conditional and prone to political capture, and that multilateral aid is generally more effective than bilateral aid. The paper also discusses the role of NGOs in development finance, highlighting their strengths and weaknesses. It concludes that aid should be advanced on a participatory basis, without conditionalities, to ensure its effectiveness in promoting development.

This paper questions the continued dominance of the network governance approach in public policy and administration and proposes an alternative framework. We find little evidence to support claims for a paradigmatic shift towards network governance in the English case. Neither does the evidence support claims for a weakening of vertical linkages or a strengthening of horizontal linkages within, or across, service delivery chains in England. Instead, bureaucratic and hierarchical structures remain pervasive and power remains highly centralised. The two case studies, of economic development and affordable housing provision, demonstrate how reforms are driven by elected politicians&#39; political objectives and their support of various target groups in society. Nevertheless, policy making is constrained by conditions of ‘postdemocracy’—essentially, the exigencies of contemporary electoral politics and the pervasive influence of business. The study of public administration and managemen...

Cette étude porte sur l'intention entrepreneuriale des étudiants finalistes de l'Université Pédagogique Nationale. Elle repose sur une démarche d'enquête mobilisant un questionnaire administré à un échantillon de 320 finalistes. Les données recueillies ont été traitées à l'aide d'analyses statistiques et d'une analyse de contenu. Les résultats mettent en évidence trois facteurs déterminants de l'intention entrepreneuriale : (i) Les représentations sociales (p = 0,000 ; r = 0,866**) influencent significativement l'attrait pour l'entrepreneuriat. Lorsque l'imaginaire collectif associe la création d'entreprise au prestige, à la réussite, à l'autonomie ou à la transformation sociale, l'engagement entrepreneurial est renforcé. (ii) Les influences sociorelationnelles (p = 0,000 ; r = 0,762**) jouent un rôle catalyseur. Le soutien des proches, enseignants, pairs ou membres de la famille favorise l'adhésion au projet entrepreneurial en apportant validation sociale, encouragements et appuis concrets. (iii) L'auto-efficacité (p = 0,000 ; r = 0,943**) constitue la variable la plus corrélée. La perception de ses propres compétences et capacités à concevoir, gérer et concrétiser un projet entrepreneurial rend l'initiative réaliste et légitime. L'intention entrepreneuriale des finalistes de l'UPN résulte de l'articulation entre perception sociale de l'entrepreneuriat, soutien de l'entourage et confiance en ses propres capacités.

Covid-19 pandemic had come and gone but the post-disaster analysis has remained a major contemporary issue in the minds of scholars globally. The current study therefore conducted a diagnostic analysis of Covid-19 pandemic relief programs and the incidence of fraud that has been described as monumental ever in the history of the United States of America. The study adopted a literature review methodology to unravel what went wrong that made both local and cross-border fraudsters had a great deal of the various pandemic relief funds. Various schemes adopted by the fraudsters were uncovered and the following recommendations were made to prevent reoccurrence during any disaster emergency relief disbursements in future: swift action by the FBI in cases of PPP loan fraud is essential to protect economic stability, ensure justice, deter future fraud, preserve evidence, and maintain public trust in government programs.

Risky Furniture merupakan salah satu toko yang melakukan jual beli terhadap furniture di daerah Jalan Raya Salembaran, Tangerang, Banten. Penelitian ini menghasilkan website e-commerce yang dapat melakukan penjualan secara online, melakukan interaksi dan juga filtering. Tools yang digunakan dalam pembuatan website PHP, MySQL dan bootstrap sebagai tambahan. Perancangan sistem yang digunakan adalah model waterfall yang terdiri dari fase perancangan, analisa, desain, implementasi dan pengujian. Website e-commerce telah berhasil digunakan berdasarkan hasil acceptance test yang dilakukan kepada 10 pembeli dan 1 admin.

Understanding the evolution of the production structure of an economy has been one of the core macroeconomic issues for academicians, professional economists, policymakers and governments for decades. Within this context, this study investigated the structural changes in the Indian economy since the 1950s using a time-varying Markov chain (TVMC) model-a dataoriented non-parametric methodology-within a panel data framework. It aimed to understand whether India's production structure followed the Classical-Chenery path of transformation or deviated towards a service-led trajectory. The production sector of the Indian economy was classified into three sectors-agriculture, industry and service. The data on the sectoral shares in the real gross value added (GVA) in the economy was taken from the National Statistical Accounts and deflated using the Wholesale Price Index (2011-12 as base year). The period under investigation was divided into three distinct phases: the dirigiste pre-liberalisation period (1951-1991), the neoliberal post-liberalisation period (1991-2011), and the digital integration period associated with the digital era (2011-2021). The findings showed that the Indian economy took a different growth path, experiencing direct service-led structural transformation of its production system. Its growth path showed (i) persistent decline in the GVA share of the agricultural sector throughout the study period, which was consistent with the agricultural transformation observed in developed economies; (ii) a stagnant GVA share of the manufacturing sector, indicating limited industrial deepening; and (iii) a sharp, sustained and premature expansion in the GVA share of the service sector. While projections about the production structure suggest that the service sector will sustain and improve its GVA share in the long-run, it would pave the path of jobless growth in the Indian economy. The novelty of this study lies in integrating historical data with a probabilistic model to analyse sectoral transformation, providing insights for future industrial and employment policies. However, its contribution to the literature is methodological, offering insight on how long-run historical data can enhance our understanding of structural change in an economy, which remains crucial for long-run policy framing.