Conflict and Human Security

This research investigates the complex connections between poverty, crime, conflict, and insecurity in Northwestern Nigeria, a region grappling with a multifaceted crisis characterised by mass displacement, youth radicalisation, and diminishing state authority. By employing a mixed-methods approach that includes surveys, key informant interviews, and focus group discussions throughout Zamfara, Sokoto, Kebbi, and Katsina States, the study indicates that poverty acts as both a driver and a result of the insecurity crisis. Quantitative analysis establishes that unemployment, low income, and inadequate education are significant predictors of susceptibility to criminal activities or victimisation. Qualitative findings emphasise that economic hardship, climate-related stress, and institutional neglect contribute to cycles of violence. Based on Human Security and Structural Violence frameworks, the results highlight the necessity for integrated, pro-poor development initiatives aimed at breaking this cycle. The study concludes with policy recommendations that focus on revitalising rural areas, creating jobs, improving educational access, adapting to climate change challenges, and fostering inclusive governance. To attain lasting peace in Northwestern Nigeria, addressing the fundamental causes of poverty and rebuilding citizens' trust in their government will be essential.

Algerian strategy in the issues of peace and security in Africa. Written by Prof. Moncef Bakail. University of Algiers 2 .Director of the African Studies Laboratory.
In light of the geo-strategic changes taking place in international relations today, it has become more necessary than ever for Africa in general and Algeria in particular to adopt a strategy centered on preventing foreign interference in its internal affairs, especially in the issue of crisis management. However, A new approach or a new African political and military mechanisms must be adopted within the framework of the structures of the African Union, especially the Peace and Security Council of the African Union. Perhaps what draws attention in the 2020 Algeria's constitution is that for the first time in the history of independent Algeria, the armed forces are allowed to carry out missions outside the borders in a country that is the largest in Africa, and surrounded by conflict areas as in Libya (east) and the Sahel (south).

IEA mendefinisikan keamanan energi sebagai "ketersediaan sumber energi
yang tidak terputus dengan harga yang terjangkau". Keamanan energi memiliki banyak dimensi, diantaranya: keamanan energi jangka panjang terutama berkaitan dengan investasi tepat waktu untuk memasok energi dengan perkembangan ekonomi online dan kebutuhan lingkungan yang berkelanjutan. Keamanan energi jangka pendek berfokus pada kemampuan sistem energi untuk segera bereaksi terhadap perubahan mendadak dalam keseimbangan permintaan dan penawaran. Kurangnya
keamanan energi terkait dengan ketidaktersediaan energi secara fisik, atau harga yang tidak kompetitif atau bahkan terlalu fluktuatif.

This chapter examines the origin and growth of modern universities from 1868, the first year of the Meiji era, until 1948, when the new postwar University Law came into effect. Its major objective is to analyze the origins, development, challenges and legacies of modern universities in Japan. To this end, the first section traces the development of universities in prewar Japan. The challenges and
opportunities that faced modern Japanese universities are then analyzed before a conclusion which
summarizes findings against the above objective.

This study is an essentially personal return to and ref lection on over  years of intellectual, practical and emotional involvement with both the idea and some of the practice of the international community's ef forts to intervene in the af fairs of sovereign states in order to bring about ap olitical and governmental transition.These interventions have been combined with 'peacekeeping' operations seeking to end violent conflicts associated with one form or another of unrepresentative and/or repressive government, and to bring about a transition to that more peaceful means of dealing with conflicting interests which is election-based representative government and what is still somewhat loosely described as 'democracy'. My initial involvement was with transition in my own country (what is now Zimbabwe but was then Southern Rhodesia). The ideas, the standards and the arguments which framed the legitimacy or otherwise of that national struggle for transition,...

Ethiopia has been plagued with conflicts of varying nature and magnitude, some of which have threatened its very survival. It was to stem this scourge of conflicts that ethnic-based federalism was adopted in 1991. Sadly, the federal dispensation has not worked well in terms of preventing conflicts as various forms of local conflicts engulfed most parts of the country. In the existing sources, these conflicts are often characterized as 'ethnic' , despite the real issues being resources, territory, power, etc. This article investigated the conflict in Wolkait, one of the conflict hotspots since 1975. The findings gleaned from pertinent data, both primary and secondary, show that the conflict has its roots in the formation of the TPLF in 1975 with its 'Greater tigray Manifesto'. As stated in its manifesto, the TPLF sought to establish an independent 'Republic of Greater Tigray' by annexing territories from Amhara (Wolkait and Telemt from Gondar and Raya from Wollo), and Eritrea's port of Assab. Upon state power capture in 1991, the TPLF championed ethnic federalism as a politico-legal strategy to redraw the previous administrative boundaries and legitimize the annexation of Wolkait, Telemt, and Raya. Annexation of Wolkait outside of any constitutional-legal framework was meant to help the TPLF further political and economic motives: vengeance against the Amhara, a springboard for further territorial annexations, a site of resettlement of Tigrayans, and a foundation for the establishment of 'The Republic of Greater Tigray'.

AU missions should strengthen the institutional framework for Human Security threat early warning signals, escalation, response preparedness and capabilities through utilising the full capacities of the UN and international framework.

A specific institutional structure of effective threat intelligence, data gathering, and analysis for robust operational, policy and strategic decision-making is needed.

There is an increasing urgency to highlight the need for full support and long-term commitment from the international community in preventing and combating transnational threats. Improving the efficiency and effectiveness of AU missions may require that human security considerations are adequately prioritised in mandates. Mandates must better specify areas of human security considerations such as access to justice, education, health, physical protection from abuse by state and non-state actors, armed and criminal groups and spoilers.

A scale up of political and technical support to the AU is required in its peacebuilding, reconstruction and development efforts across all relevant activities and engagements.
AU missions should strengthen the institutional framework for Human Security threat early warning signals, escalation, response preparedness and capabilities through utilising the full capacities of the UN and international framework.

Protection of civilians mandates have been a key feature of peace support operations for almost two decades, but policies and guidance for troops on how to achieve this exist mostly in aspirational and normative instruments. The quality of missions are affected by an inability of international support to address the root causes of the conflict. While United Nations peacekeeping operational doctrines are readily understood at the strategic level, their effective implementation at the tactical level poses challenges.

The international response to conflict often takes the form of increasingly complex interventions characterized by institutional proliferation and overlap; various sources of legitimacy and authority; and convoluted hierarchies.
Missions increasing operate in an unstable environment where conflict dynamics are highly unpredictable.
A closer integration between the AU missions and the UN system of coordination bodies, funds and programmes is widely suggested by stakeholders.

Although protection of civilians mandates have been a key feature of peace support operations for almost two decades, policies and guidance for troops on how to achieve this exist mostly in aspirational and normative instruments. AMISOM had a contradictory relationship with the challenge to protect Somali civilians and to comply with its mandate.

This begs the question of whether the foreign troops brought peace or whether their presence rekindled the conflict. The heavy presence of AU troops brought some stability but also reignited hostilities, rivalry and retaliatory attacks by militant groups against potential targets. The need for recognition and understanding of how Troop Contributing Countries (TCCs) operate in hostile environments in the interest of civilians and the ad-hoc initiatives adopted by PSOs indicate a need for systemic change and a resolution of the tension between, mandate; doctrine, practice and reception of missions.

Perpetrators of violence against civilians employ a range of strategies to both target the physical safety and well-being of individuals and groups and to render the environment in which individuals and groups live insecure.
While all stakeholders, including the UN, AU, troop contributing countries, and the Somali government, share a common understanding of countering Al-Shabaab’s vision, the political commitment to this fight varies.

The nature of the wars, armed conflicts, violence and civil movements in African countries indicate that there is a need to improve and modernize the traditional military and police peace operations, especially African-led operations. A gap in mandate language, combined with an overall limited understanding of the tangible value of civil society engagement, has historically led to the lack of an institutional incentive within missions to develop a systematic approach for regular mission engagement with civil society actors on issues of peace and security (DPKO, 2016).

Various resolutions passed by the UNSC and AU PSC  gradually evolved to specifically emphasising to protect the human rights of vulnerable groups. Emphases came to be placed on the importance of adhering to the Secretary-General’s Human Rights and Due Diligence Policy and the United Nations Zero-Tolerance Policy on Sexual Exploitation and Abuse.
Increasing the involvement of local actors supporting justice, police, and civilian management and governance capacities could make peace support more effective.

Successive resolutions stressed concerns on violations of human rights, including extrajudicial killings, violence against women, children and journalists, arbitrary detention and pervasive sexual violence, and underscoring the need to end impunity, uphold human rights and to hold accountable those who commit such crimes. A human security approach could speak better to legitimacy and authority where there is no other source. It could set up a more solid foundation for a state to emerge, not based on violence or for an indifferent and exploitative form of governance to be imposed.

Articles appearing in the LEJIAD do not represent the views of either LECIAD or the Editorial Board. While we take responsibility for giving exposition to the views expressed in the articles, they remain the exclusive responsibility of the authors.

China's evolving ties with Afghanistan involve investments and security talks with the Taliban. This analysis explores challenges amid instability and China's role in fostering peace and economic growth. It outlines expectations from China for supporting Afghanistan's development and political stability under Taliban leadership.

The causes and types of conflicts are multifaceted as they are deeply embedded in ethno-political and cultural issues of the community. The study was guided by Galtung's theories of structural violence and structural peace-building and Agenda Setting theory. The study employed qualitative and quantitative methods. The data were collected through questionnaires, interviews schedule, FGDs guides and review of literature through document analysis. The data were analyzed using Statistical Packages for Social Scientists (SPSS 21). The data were presented in tables, pie charts and bar graphs. The findings of the study revealed that conflicts in Kisumu County are attributed to historical injustices, socioeconomic factors and political issues. The findings of the study further revealed that Kisumu County experienced electoral and politically instigated ethnic conflicts recurrent largely during electioneering process with the major architects as youths and political class. These conflicts have had greater impacts on socioeconomic , psychological and health aspects of people. The study concluded that historical injustices, election rigging claims and ethnicity are the major causes of conflicts while electoral and political conflicts are the key types of conflicts and as such community members and political class are the key players in averting the conflicts for a long term development.

If there was a global maxim, a phrase or a dictum that has currently gripped the imagination of the 21 st century contemporary world and unionized universal discourse; from Washington DC to Malawi, Nairobi to Dubai, Guangzhou China to Australia, then it is not Sustainability. It would be "Climate Change." Climate change is particularly important given its 'apocalyptic' implication on human safety and survival, specifically with regards to food security, considering that the adverse climate change impacts are permanent and irreversible. The enduring negative environmental and human implications of the acerbated emission of greenhouse gasses and increasing Earth temperature is alarming and egregious. Climate change and its impact now remains the single biggest threat to humanity. Introvertly, both the climate change advocates, and even deniers, concur that the extent of (human) destructions, and/or impact, on the natural ecosystem is reaching crisis levels and must be confronted, and contained, or else humanity may not recover her natural habitat and food systems. Consequently, to mitigate the, evidenced, Climate Change gaps, especially on food security, a lot of suggestions have been proposed, chief among them globalization of Food Systemsbuilding an interconnected, scientific/technological, permanent and linear global food system-methods, resources, inputs and practices. This, according to some proponents, will address food shortages by leveraging knowledge, resources, and technology. The poster child of this theory is the introduction of Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO), seen by many as the El Dorado to everything food security; introduction of GMO is always mentioned together with mechanized agriculture, large-scale farming-land consolidation, use of agricultural technology etc. Western countries led by America are the drivers of the GMO dictum. What does this drive portend, in all contexts, for the poor, fragile and already fragmented African continent? While this paper advocates for globalized approach to food systems based on sustainable methodologies, it proposes a system that builds context-appropriate methods that invariably detach from global food web, but strengthens local production; building a community-led food security narrative/system that coheres with existing dietary, cultural, climatic, social, egalitarian and food patterns. This would support adoption of sustainable cultural farming practices, use of Climate Smart Agricultural Practices (CSAPs), adopting environmentally friendly agri-practices and implementing a system disengaged from the World Order under food systems. The paper finds that globalization of food systems is dangerous on many fronts, ranging from human rights and individual autonomy perspective; food safety, environmental safety, democracy/political pluralism and human security, and must be avoided using every tool available to mankind. With evidence, this paper proves that the impact of globalized food systems will be worse than climate change itself and may leave the African continent more fragile, fragmented and vulnerable than ever before.

The reoccurring conflict between herdsmen and farmers has been a major challenge to food security in Nigeria. This study examined the implications of farmers-herdsmen conflict on food production in Kwara State. The specific objectives of the paper were to identify and analyze the causes of conflict between herdsmen and farmers in Kwara State; examine the impacts of conflict on food production in the state; assess the implications of the conflict on food security in the state; and suggest some recommendations for improved productivity in the state. The study adopted a mixed method as it relied on primary and secondary data. The research sample consisted of twelve farmers and six herdsmen, selected in the three LGAs of Kwara State using a snowball sampling technique. The findings from the paper revealed that land resources, mischiefs, grazing animals by under-aged children, influx of foreign herdsmen are the major causes of conflict between farmers and herdsmen in Kwara State.

Rapid Needs Assessment on Tigray Youth" a recent study conducted in collaboration with the Tigray Youth Association reveals the existing status, needs, challenges, and aspirations of the regional youth in postwar Tigray. The study provides valuable insights into the current conditions, needs, challenges, and aspirations of the youth in Tigray. The assessment employed various data collection methods, including semi-structured survey questionnaires, focus group discussions (FGDs), and key informant interviews. The findings reveal that certain groups of youth in Tigray, such as females, rural males, youth with disabilities, injured veteran youth, and student youth, are particularly vulnerable due to the detrimental impacts of gender-based violence, physical assault, wartime injuries, and postwar economic hardships. These challenges have not only affected their present circumstances but also hindered their future ambitions and aspirations. Youth unemployment emerged as a significant concern, with 81% of the surveyed youth being unemployed. The economic collapse, asset plunder during the war, and the absence of a functioning government were identified as contributing factors. Moreover, a majority of the youth expressed a lack of political goals or aspirations (66%), attributed to restrictions imposed by authorities on youth engagement in civic activities. To address these challenges and support the aspirations of Tigray's youth, the report proposes a recovery roadmap that emphasizes integrated interventions. The roadmap includes provisions for mental health and trauma support, accessible healthcare services, socioeconomic assistance, educational opportunities, skill development programs, and advocacy for youth rights and policy reforms. The findings of this rapid needs assessment underscore the importance of collaborative efforts involving various stakeholders, including the community, government, beneficiaries, funders, project implementers, civil society organizations (CSOs), and international governmental organizations (IGOs). By implementing the recovery roadmap, it is hoped that Tigray's youth can overcome their challenges, rebuild their lives, and contribute to the sustainable development of their region.

Using a new, global data base covering the years 1950 to 2015, we study the impact of sanctions on international trade and welfare. We make use of the rich dimensionality of our data and of the latest developments in the structural gravity literature. Starting with a broad evaluation by sanction type, we carefully investigate the case of Iran. Effects are significant but also widely heterogeneous across sanctioning countries. Moreover, they depend on the direction of trade. We also perform a counterfactual analysis which translates our partial equilibrium sanction estimates into heterogeneous but intuitive general equilibrium effects within the same framework.

This paper explores the interlinked themes of cultural heritage intelligence support to human security and conflict forecasting from a military perspective by assessing how culture can be weaponised and exploited. These themes will be further unpacked alongside details of the wargame set in the fictional Niagu River valley.

The causes and types of conflicts are multifaceted as they are deeply embedded in ethno-political and cultural issues of the community. The study was guided by Galtung's theories of structural violence and structural peace-building and Agenda Setting theory. The study employed qualitative and quantitative methods. The data were collected through questionnaires, interviews schedule, FGDs guides and review of literature through document analysis. The data were analyzed using Statistical Packages for Social Scientists (SPSS 21). The data were presented in tables, pie charts and bar graphs. The findings of the study revealed that conflicts in Kisumu County are attributed to historical injustices, socioeconomic factors and political issues. The findings of the study further revealed that Kisumu County experienced electoral and politically instigated ethnic conflicts recurrent largely during electioneering process with the major architects as youths and political class. These conflicts have had greater impacts on socioeconomic , psychological and health aspects of people. The study concluded that historical injustices, election rigging claims and ethnicity are the major causes of conflicts while electoral and political conflicts are the key types of conflicts and as such community members and political class are the key players in averting the conflicts for a long term development.

Over the last two decades, the concepts of defence and security have overlapped to the point where the former is merged with the latter. Since jihadist terrorism broke out at the dawn of the millennium, governments have been forced to review the classic paradigm according to which the military is employed in overseas operations—or the defence of the homeland from external enemies—and police and law enforcement agencies are tasked with internal security. In such a context, the military has taken on an increasing role in national security matters, although security itself is an umbrella concept under development that currently includes such cross-cutting topics as terrorism, cyber threats, health, food, energy, the economy, poverty, climate change, information technology, social security, job security, just to mention a few. The inclination to replace the idea of defence with security has contributed to the expansion of the idea of security itself. This way, defence activities abroad, such as military assistance to Ukraine in the context of the ongoing conflict with Russia, are presented to the public as "security" operations.

Well-established and reputable dictionaries such as Merriam-Webster, Britannica, Collins, Oxford, Cambridge, Longman, and Macmillan provide similar definitions of the term "security": safety; safety from attack, harm, or damage; freedom from danger or threat; freedom from fear or anxiety; being safe and free from worry; being protected or safe from harm. Security is the protection from, or resilience against, the potential harm caused by others by restricting one's freedom to act.

In addition to these definitions, some of which are more focused on the person and his concerns and fears, there is a more comprehensive idea that incorporates the term “defence”. The definitions given by several dictionaries in this respect are pertinent. Therefore, according to the Cambridge Dictionary, security is the "protection of a person, building, organization, or country against threats such as crime or attacks by foreign countries". A similar definition is provided by the Oxford Dictionary: "the safety of a state or organization against criminal activity such as terrorism, theft, or espionage". On the same line, Longman says: "things that are done to keep a person, building, or country safe from danger or crime". These definitions show how the nature of the concept of security is changing, incorporating that of defence into much broader domains than the military realm.

The term "defence", is given as a synonym of "security" by the majority of these dictionaries (Merriam-Webster, Cambridge, Oxford, Collins), even though Britannica and Macmillan continue to be anchored to the dichotomy of defence/external and security/internal, respectively, by providing the words "national security" and "internal security", is evidence of this trend.

The evolving concept of security must be scrutinised, with special attention paid to the notion of human security, boosted by UN General Assembly resolution 66/290 and the NATO Strategic Concept 2022, and currently under investigation by the Exploratory Team of the NATO Science and Technology Organization.

In this chapter, we explain the context of human insecurity within which the AU was conceived. We claim that the AU was formed in 2002 largely to address problems that had hindered the African people from enjoying human security. We shall then explore ways in which the AU has sought to promote peace and security. To what extent have its efforts helped the African people enjoy human security? We explain the AU organisational development
and particularly its African Peace and Security Architecture (APSA), and explore its potential strengths and weaknesses in relation to human security.

The usurpation of land and displacement of black people during the colonial era created serious imbalances in terms of land ownership between black and white people in Zimbabwe. This presentation discusses the road to the Fast Track Land Reform Programme which was kick-started in the quest to redress the skewed land ownership patterns that characterised the colonial era. It discusses the impact of major policy shifts from the market-based “willing seller –willing buyer” principle to the Fast Track Land Reform Programme on Zimbabwe’s food security. It is evident from the findings that the implementation of the FTLRP, in 2000 had adverse effects on agricultural production which culminated into food insecurity. As a result of the FTLRP the country was unable to feed its people. It concludes that there is utmost need for policy reflection with a vein desire to depart from detrimental scenarios which have endangered the capability of the country to produce enough food crops. The presenta...

The African Union has articulated an approach to human security that incorporates political, social, economic, and environmental factors. However, Africa continues to experience wars, violent conflicts, and other threats to human security largely because the AU's mechanisms for dealing with these issues are inadequate. The AU's Peace and Security Council is poorly run, the relationships between the AU and Regional Economic Communities are not smooth, and Africa's capabilities to address human security threats are deficient. Despite the rhetoric about self-pacification, the AU human security architecture is dependent on outside funding, which enables outsiders to shape Africa's agenda. Moreover, the AU's activities under the African Peace and Security Architecture (APSA) have been state-centric and fallen short of addressing threats to human security. The AU needs to fully operationalize APSA and the African Governance Architecture, subscribe to their guiding principles and persuade its members to support the activities identified in their roadmaps.

Following the attainment of independence by African States, fostering intra-continental trade, regional unity and cooperation became a common aim of these infant States. The main motive of regional integration in West Africa was pinned at enhancing collective security, promoting trade and protecting the sovereignty of member States collectively. In light of the treaty of ECOWAS, the bloc was formulated on the need to encourage, foster and accelerate socioeconomic develop of all members affiliated to the organization in order to improve the living standard of nationalities member to the regional bloc. Basing on a similar premise, the ECOWAS was formulated as a common pool for collectively addressing political, social and economic challenges of the day and those to emerge in the future. The post-colonial Africa witnessed relaxation of trade tariffs, in favor of regional trade liberalization amongst Western African States. It is however, tragic to apprehend that owing to illicit governance, characterized by monopolization of power and unfair allocation of resources, the region has seen a surge in unprecedented usurpation of power, having states such as Mali, Burkina Faso and Nigeria recording well over seven coups each between 1950 and 2022. Illustrating the dearth of coups and the region, the West African region has been home to over twenty coups both successful and failed since 2010. Basing on interdependence theory, the researcher used mixed methods to assess the causes and impacts of unconstitutional change of government in the region placing significant focus on Mali. In order to account for the recurrence of coups, the research used documentary search to establish the coup-proofing mechanism in the region as well as assess the utility of such means. The research established that, interference by former colonial masters, military centrality, inept governance, grave poverty and high unemployment, and intensified activities of terrorists (in the case of Mali, the Taureg rebels) are some of major causes of coups in the region. The research has established that though there is existence of legal frameworks that champions coup-proofing mechanisms such as economic sanctions, name and shaming, suspension of the noncompliant member state amongst an array of other, such techniques have failed to deter the conspirators. Hence the research proffered pro-democratization recommendations to address social injustices which are the root causes of unconstitutional change of government in the region.

Migration involves a search for well-being and security, but is not guaranteed to bring either. In the short run it quite often reduces both. What are the hoped for benefits for which the risks are undertaken? Insecurity can generate migration, and in the case of refugees from conflict, migration is primarily insecurity driven. But apart from people fleeing the most extreme physical insecurity, what motivates many migrants is something more than security. Migration can itself put people's security in jeopardy, and migrants are often risk-takers, although sometimes they act on the basis of bad information, miscalculation or duress. It would be self-contradictory to risk everything for the hope of security alone. Some people even flee a security that is felt as stifling or dull. So migration involves considerable uncertainty. Some migrants achieve an acceptable or even admirable outcome while others end in situations of great insecurity and distress. Some lose their lives. The risks are greatest for illegal migrants. 2 This chapter looks, first, at migrant lives, at being-ill-being, well-being, and plain being as well as at their degree of security. 3 Security concerns the security of holding goods, and also the risks associated. From looking at being , the contents of migrant life, we can move to consider its evaluation, as well-and ill-being and the justice and injustice of their generation and distribution. One aspect that demands reflection is the frequent divergence between 'subjective' (personal intuitive self-assessments) and 'objective' judgements (assessments in terms of explicit socially validated criteria of advantage or disadvantage) by or for migrants. Justice concerns the interpersonal distribution of goods and of risks, as well as the nature of processes of distribution. The themes of justice and security overlap strongly with reference to distribution of risks. From this examination of aspects of being, well-being and distributive justice, I will address, second, themes of transnational ethics. My interest is as much in the significance of migration for global ethics as in commenting on the global ethics of migration. Migration jumbles up the contents of the supposedly separate boxes, the national

The study sought to assess the impact of economic sanctions on financial services offered by commercial banks in Zimbabwe for the purpose of establishing strategies that could be adopted by the affected banks. The study sought to address the following objectives; assess the impact of economic sanctions that affected the financial services offered by commercial banks in Zimbabwe; outline the nature and forms of economic sanctions which affected financial services offered by Zimbabwean commercial banks; and finally craft strategies that could be adopted by commercial banks to lessen the impact of economic sanctions. The study found that trade and financial restrictions were the major forms of economic sanctions which affected financial service provision of commercial banks in Zimbabwe during the period under study. These restrictions resulted in closure of some nostro (foreign) accounts, failure to access offshore lines of credit, difficulties in international money transfers as well ...

A military Gender Advisor (GENAD) capability is
increasingly a feature of armed forces, military
deployments and peace operations around the world.
Tasked with the implementation of the United Nations (UN)
Women, Peace and Security (WPS) agenda, the GENAD
capability strengthens organisations and operations with
its focus on increasing gender equality within armed
forces and ensuring gender responsive operational and
organisational planning, policy and practice.
This research examines the policies, structures and
cultures that enable and constrain the effectiveness of
military GENAD capabilities around the world. Drawing
on open-source research and interviews with current and
former GENADs and relevant stakeholders, the review
identifies integrated findings and recommendations, which
inform a tripartite proposal for military organisations to
enhance their military GENAD capability.

China paid close attention to the changing political and security conditions of Afghanistan during the military exit of the United States from the war-torn country. Amid the fragile peace negotiation and with the collapse of Ashraf Ghani's regime, the country invited a lot of attention from the region as well as from the entire world. China also showed its concerns over the changed scenario and so vowed its pledge to respect and support the political settlement between the Taliban and other political stakeholders in Kabul. China showed utmost support to the peace process among the Afghan stakeholders and now also desires to work for the reconstruction and stability of Afghanistan long with other regional and global contenders. China does not have any historical baggage in Afghanistan and it has never sided with any of the factions or interfered in the internal political matters therein. Therefore, China can confidently partner with any of the future government(s) of Afghanistan. Moreover, Beijing's decentralised diplomatic approach is always acknowledged by stakeholders in Afghanistan. China's role in Afghanistan would also be compatible with the other neighbours of Afghanistan, especially Pakistan and the Central Asian Republics (CARs).

The Institute of Social Studies is Europe’s longest-established centre of higher education and research in development studies. Post-graduate teaching programmes range from six-week diploma courses to the PhD programme. Research at ISS is fundamental in the sense of laying a scientific basis for the formulation of appropriate development policies. The academic work of ISS is disseminated in the form of books, journal articles, teaching texts, monographs and working papers. The Working Paper series provides a forum for work in progress which seeks to elicit comments and generate discussion. The series includes academic research by staff, PhD participants and visiting fellows, and award-winning research papers by graduate students. Working Papers are available in electronic format at www.iss.nl/workingpapers.

The study sought to assess the impact of economic sanctions on financial services offered by commercial banks in Zimbabwe for the purpose of establishing strategies that could be adopted by the affected banks. The study sought to address the following objectives; assess the impact of economic sanctions that affected the financial services offered by commercial banks in Zimbabwe; outline the nature and forms of economic sanctions which affected financial services offered by Zimbabwean commercial banks; and finally craft strategies that could be adopted by commercial banks to lessen the impact of economic sanctions. The study found that trade and financial restrictions were the major forms of economic sanctions which affected financial service provision of commercial banks in Zimbabwe during the period under study. These restrictions resulted in closure of some nostro (foreign) accounts, failure to access offshore lines of credit, difficulties in international money transfers as well ...

This study seeks to comprehend the utility of sanctions in theglobal era with the background that albeit the widely publicised negative resultant effects of sanctions, the usage of sanctions as a foreign policy tool continues to increase.This paper interrogates how globalisation and sanctions are persistently impacting on each other; howthe objectives of these two variables are diametrically opposed whereby the former seeks to unify states while the latter seeks to isolate actors. On one hand, globalization has rendered sanctions ineffective by giving the sanctioned states alternative trading partners. On the other hand, the global village renders it easy for sanctions to be inevitably applied as the inter-connectedness and inter-linkages allow for states to be vulnerable. This paper also critiques how economic powerhouses strategically extend support to sanctioned states and its effect on the effectiveness of sanctions. This article concludes that globalisation has rendered the imp...

The revolution which saw the seizure of White ‘owned’ land by the landless Black Zimbabweans has generated unparalleled debates both in and outside Zimbabwe. Neo-colonialists, neo-conservatives and neo- liberals alike have labeled the land revolution as barbaric, destructive, violent and racial. These images, though misleading have been popularised by pro-Western media and have managed to attract sympathy for the former White farmers and at the same time it has managed to demonise the land revolution. This article advances the thesis that these half-baked, ahistorical, propagandistic and racist images have been crafted deliberately to trivialise an agenda which sought to redress the past socio-economic injustices. Secondly, the article argues that White farmers were not innocent bystanders as portrayed by the images, but were in complicit in the whole conflict. Finally, the article concludes that the violence which characterised the revolution was not because Blacks are violent by n...

The Institute of Social Studies is Europe’s longest-established centre of higher education and research in development studies. Post-graduate teaching programmes range from six-week diploma courses to the PhD programme. Research at ISS is fundamental in the sense of laying a scientific basis for the formulation of appropriate development policies. The academic work of ISS is disseminated in the form of books, journal articles, teaching texts, monographs and working papers. The Working Paper series provides a forum for work in progress which seeks to elicit comments and generate discussion. The series includes academic research by staff, PhD participants and visiting fellows, and award-winning research papers by graduate students. Working Papers are available in electronic format at www.iss.nl/workingpapers.

The Institute of Social Studies is Europe’s longest-established centre of higher education and research in development studies. Post-graduate teaching programmes range from six-week diploma courses to the PhD programme. Research at ISS is fundamental in the sense of laying a scientific basis for the formulation of appropriate development policies. The academic work of ISS is disseminated in the form of books, journal articles, teaching texts, monographs and working papers. The Working Paper series provides a forum for work in progress which seeks to elicit comments and generate discussion. The series includes academic research by staff, PhD participants and visiting fellows, and award-winning research papers by graduate students. Working Papers are available in electronic format at www.iss.nl/workingpapers.

This study seeks to comprehend the utility of sanctions in theglobal era with the background that albeit the widely publicised negative resultant effects of sanctions, the usage of sanctions as a foreign policy tool continues to increase.This paper interrogates how globalisation and sanctions are persistently impacting on each other; howthe objectives of these two variables are diametrically opposed whereby the former seeks to unify states while the latter seeks to isolate actors. On one hand, globalization has rendered sanctions ineffective by giving the sanctioned states alternative trading partners. On the other hand, the global village renders it easy for sanctions to be inevitably applied as the inter-connectedness and inter-linkages allow for states to be vulnerable. This paper also critiques how economic powerhouses strategically extend support to sanctioned states and its effect on the effectiveness of sanctions. This article concludes that globalisation has rendered the impact of sanctions questionable and futile.

It is a common misconception even in academic circles that global environmental protection emerged in the last decade of the 20th century, especially in terms of international law. This paper proves however, that due to the dominance of the Cold War International Relations framework, the Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty was in fact a treaty designated to reduce the environmental harm caused by nuclear testing. The reasons behind the misconceptions are just as intriguing as the implications for a re-examined timeline of environmental history.