The development of self-esteem

In the spectrum of pedagogical, psychological or sociological literature, the issue of family as the most important educational environment in a child's life (as well as other concepts of family) is very often devoted to, and alternative educational environments are indicated - foster care, in the case when the child cannot stay in the family home. In the course of the care, education and socialization processes carried out in the family, parents/tutors pay special attention to the continuous teaching of the child responsibility and independence in everyday life situations, and this in turn has its significant reference to selected elements of Janusz Korczak's care and education system. One can mention, for example, the principles of education preferred by Korczak, attitudes towards the child, treating him as a subject and seeing him as a human being, and a specific approach to the so-called educational area. The impact of parents/totors towards/for children in the spectrum of contemporary pedagogical concepts can be seen in the perspective of systematically building their "antifragility" in children, i.e. their readiness to consciously cope with various problems based on the strengths they have, and not to exempt themselves from this task so that others can do it for them. It is important that parents, while raising "antifragile" children for independence, self-development and self-awareness, were also subject to the same process. To sum up, the text indicates selected new challenges that appear today for parents/tutors and also reflects them in selected areas of Korczak's concept and quotes the child's requests to parents/guardians, i.e. the 20 commandments for parents. The aim of the following text was achieved by this procedure.

Self-esteem, a person's evaluation of his or her value, lays important groundwork for successful life span development. Self-esteem in earlier life predicts later physical and mental health, satisfaction with relationships and work, economic prospects and longevity . Understanding the antecedents of self-esteem development is therefore not only of great interest for researchers, but also for therapists, educators and policy makers. Life transitions might be an especially impactful antecedent of self-evaluative traits such as self-esteem because self-esteem is a central indicator of one's subjective experience of success and failure in life . Previous research has studied self-esteem change during the final college years , marriage , and parenthood (Van Scheppingen,

Self-esteem, a person's evaluation of his or her value, lays important groundwork for successful life span development. Self-esteem in earlier life predicts later physical and mental health, satisfaction with relationships and work, economic prospects and longevity . Understanding the antecedents of self-esteem development is therefore not only of great interest for researchers, but also for therapists, educators and policy makers. Life transitions might be an especially impactful antecedent of self-evaluative traits such as self-esteem because self-esteem is a central indicator of one's subjective experience of success and failure in life . Previous research has studied self-esteem change during the final college years , marriage , and parenthood (Van Scheppingen,

The study aims to determine how the variables of gender, grade level, playing violent computer games, watching violent movies, and participation and social activities contribute to predicting peer pressure levels among adolescents. It was conducted with 212 adolescents (secondary school students). The "Peer Pressure Scale" and a "Personal Information Form" were employed to obtain data. The collected data were analyzed by multiple regression analysis. The results of the study showed that grade level, playing violent computer games, watching violent movies, and participation and social activities are significant predictors of peer pressure levels among adolescents. However, gender was not found to be a significant predictor.

Self-esteem research, arguably the largest field of research in the history of social science, has devoted much of its efforts to the idea that self-esteem causes a broad range of behavioral and social problems, but has failed to produce strong, consistent evidence for most claims. However, this research has conceptual and methodological problems, including a limited understanding of the role of culture, and the assumption that global levels of self-esteem are the main causal mechanism of interest. This paper argues that self-esteem motivated behavior may be better understood as socio-culturally contextualized pursuits of valued identities, which are difficult to understand without considering their social and cultural conditions. Self-esteem therefore lies at the intersection of culture and cognition, and it is argued that an interdisciplinary approach to self-esteem pursuits could be beneficial. A way to reconcile constructionist views of identity with a cognitive self is then suggested and discussed. It is possible, by drawing on models of neurocognition, to think of a cognitive self as performed, context-dependent, and emergent rather than fixed, internal, and expressed. Finally, the paper discusses the social contingencies and consequences of self-esteem pursuits in relation to research issues such as aggression, stratification, crime, masculinity, and political attitudes.

It was established as a UTS Centre in February, 2002. The Centre aims to contribute to the development and application of health economics and health services research through research, teaching and policy support. CHERE's research program encompasses both the theory and application of health economics. The main theoretical research theme pursues valuing benefits, including understanding what individuals value from health and health care, how such values should be measured, and exploring the social values attached to these benefits. The applied research focuses on economic and the appraisal of new programs or new ways of delivering and/or funding services. CHERE's teaching includes introducing clinicians, health services managers, public health professionals and others to health economic principles. Training programs aim to develop practical skills in health economics and health services research. Policy support is provided at all levels of the health care system by undertaking commissioned projects, through the provision of formal and informal advice as well as participation in working parties and committees.

It was established as a UTS Centre in February, 2002. The Centre aims to contribute to the development and application of health economics and health services research through research, teaching and policy support. CHERE's research program encompasses both the theory and application of health economics. The main theoretical research theme pursues valuing benefits, including understanding what individuals value from health and health care, how such values should be measured, and exploring the social values attached to these benefits. The applied research focuses on economic and the appraisal of new programs or new ways of delivering and/or funding services. CHERE's teaching includes introducing clinicians, health services managers, public health professionals and others to health economic principles. Training programs aim to develop practical skills in health economics and health services research. Policy support is provided at all levels of the health care system by undertaking commissioned projects, through the provision of formal and informal advice as well as participation in working parties and committees.

Stima de sine este influențată de cultură și educație. Occidentul promovează individualismul și dezvoltarea personală, Orientul se concentrează pe disciplină și reziliență într-un context colectiv, iar Africa valorizează comunitatea și diversitatea culturală. Fiecare abordare are avantaje și limitări. Adaptabilitatea la abordări diverse poate contribui la dezvoltarea individuală și colectivă într-o lume globalizată.

It was established as a UTS Centre in February, 2002. The Centre aims to contribute to the development and application of health economics and health services research through research, teaching and policy support. CHERE's research program encompasses both the theory and application of health economics. The main theoretical research theme pursues valuing benefits, including understanding what individuals value from health and health care, how such values should be measured, and exploring the social values attached to these benefits. The applied research focuses on economic and the appraisal of new programs or new ways of delivering and/or funding services. CHERE's teaching includes introducing clinicians, health services managers, public health professionals and others to health economic principles. Training programs aim to develop practical skills in health economics and health services research. Policy support is provided at all levels of the health care system by undertaking commissioned projects, through the provision of formal and informal advice as well as participation in working parties and committees.

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The aim of the study was to determine whether a physical activity, diet and behaviour modification intervention would significantly improve the self-perception of 9 to 12 year old overweight and obese children. A convenience sample of 38 subjects between the ages of 9 and 12 years (mean age = 11.0) participated in the study. Twenty children (N = 20), 13 girls and 7 boys, participated in the intervention programme for 13 week (3 times/week), while 18 children (N = 18), 11 girls and 7 boys, served as a control group. Kinanthropometric measurements were used to assess body composition and self-perception was determined by using the Harter Scale for Self-Perception. The results showed low self-perception values compared to normal children, although the self-perception of overweight and obese children did not differ from each other. There was a significant increase in all subcomponents of self-perception in the experimental group, with the largest improvement in athletic, physical and global self-perception (p < 0.05). In contrast, the control group exhibited lower values in all the subcomponents with a significant decrease in social self-perception (p < 0.05). Waist and upper arm circumferences, as well as fat percentages of the experimental group decreased significantly, while the measurements of the same components in the control group increased. The multidisciplinary intervention programme not only possesses weight loss advantages for overweight and obese children, but has the advantage of improving self-perception. Participation in the programme also showed positive effects on the self-perception of both sexes, although the effect in the various subcomponents appears to be different.

ObjectivesTo determine whether weight problems in children (overweight, obesity and overweight or obesity) were related to deprivation indices when attributed only according to electoral ward of the school attended. To determine whether children with weight problems were more likely to be found in some wards rather than others, and to compare the distribution for boys and girls.DesignRetrospective, cross-sectional, observational study.SettingOne hundred and six primary schools from all parts of Liverpool city.SubjectsFive cohorts of 9–10-year-old children between 1998 and 2003.Main outcome measuresBody mass index (BMI) for each child to estimate proportions overweight, obese and overweight or obese according to international criteria.ResultsBetween January 1998 and March 2003, the heights and weights of 7902 boys and 7514 girls were measured and BMI calculated. The prevalence of boys and girls categorised as overweight or obese was very high (1620, 20.6% and 1909, 25.7%, respectivel...

This study examines the relationship between adolescents&amp;#39; self-esteem and peer pressure degrees according to their gender and socioeconomic status. The data were obtained from 500 high school students using the Self-efficacy Expectation Scale, developed by Rosenberg (1965) and adapted by Cuhadaroglu (1986) and Kıran-Esen (2006), and the &amp;quot; Peer Pressure Scale (PPS), developed by Kıran (2002). Findings show that when adolescents&amp;#39; peer pressure degree is viewed according to their level of income, their self-esteem degree is higher with middle income level and vice versa with higher income level. Another finding is that adolescents with lower income level are exposed to further peer pressure than middle and high income level. Self-esteem degree is negatively affected by peer pressure. However, there is a positive correlation between their self-esteem degree and indirect peer pressure and further analysis shows that there&amp;#39;s a negative correlation between their status of being exposed to direct or indirect peer pressure. Adolescents with direct peer pressure perceive that indirect pressure is less than the others.

Self-esteem research, arguably the largest field of research in the history of social science, has devoted much of its efforts to the idea that self-esteem causes a broad range of behavioral and social problems, but has failed to produce strong, consistent evidence for most claims. However, this research has conceptual and methodological problems, including a limited understanding of the role of culture, and the assumption that global levels of self-esteem are the main causal mechanism of interest. This paper argues that self-esteem motivated behavior may be better understood as socio-culturally contextualized pursuits of valued identities, which are difficult to understand without considering their social and cultural conditions. Self-esteem therefore lies at the intersection of culture and cognition, and it is argued that an interdisciplinary approach to self-esteem pursuits could be beneficial. A way to reconcile constructionist views of identity with a cognitive self is then suggested and discussed. It is possible, by drawing on models of neurocognition, to think of a cognitive self as performed, context-dependent, and emergent rather than fixed, internal, and expressed. Finally, the paper discusses the social contingencies and consequences of self-esteem pursuits in relation to research issues such as aggression, stratification, crime, masculinity, and political attitudes.

The aims of this study were: a) to compare the self-esteem of obese children and normal-weight controls, and b) to examine whether obesity bias moderates the relationship between weight status and self-esteem. Fifty three normal-weight and forty 11-year-old obese children were administered Harter's (1985) Self-Perception Profile for Children (SPPC), which consists of a global self-worth subscale and five domain-specific subscales that measure scholastic competence, social acceptance, athletic competence, physical appearance and behavioural conduct. To assess the strength of obesity bias, children were given an adjective attribution task embedded in the context of short vignettes. Obese children demonstrated lower social and athletic competence, physical appearance and global self-esteem compared to the normal-weight controls. Lower levels of obesity bias in obese children were associated with higher levels of esteem in physical appearance, athletic competence and global self-worth. The findings of the study show that low self-esteem is a psychological cost of childhood obesity, especially when combined with high obesity bias. This suggests that targeting obesity stigma can help obese children develop more positive self-perceptions.

This chapter is based on a study of the effects of different exit routes from working life on the individual worker’s self-esteem. We compared three exit routes, retirement or exit on disability pension (life-long option based on medical evaluation), retirement or exit on optional age pension (available between age 62 and 66), and ordinary old age pension (taking effect between 67 and 70 years of age). The hypotheses were tested on data from a panel study of a random sample of Norwegian workforce that conducted two measurements five years apart. Self-esteem was measured by the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale. The results revealed that, compared to those remaining at work, exiting on disability pension led to reduced self-esteem, while exiting on optional early pension or ordinary old age pension showed similar trends, although the differences were not significant for these groups. Exit on disability pension seemed to be a more negative experience for the individual, probably threatening...

Background. Although depressive symptoms in older adults are common, their relationship with disability and the influence of disability on the development of depressive symptoms over time is not well understood. This longitudinal study investigates the change trajectories of both depressive symptoms and disability, as well as their associations over time. Methods. Participants included 442 communitydwelling older adults living in Taiwan, aged 65 years or older, who completed six waves of survey interviews. Depression was scored with the Short Psychiatric Evaluation Schedule and disability with the instrumental and physical activities of daily living measure during each consecutive data collection wave. The autoregressive latent trajectory model and parallel latent growth curve modeling were adopted for analysis of the data. Results. The autoregressive latent trajectory model highlights that previous depressive symptoms (and disability) significantly contributed to the advancement of...

It was established as a UTS Centre in February, 2002. The Centre aims to contribute to the development and application of health economics and health services research through research, teaching and policy support. CHERE's research program encompasses both the theory and application of health economics. The main theoretical research theme pursues valuing benefits, including understanding what individuals value from health and health care, how such values should be measured, and exploring the social values attached to these benefits. The applied research focuses on economic and the appraisal of new programs or new ways of delivering and/or funding services. CHERE's teaching includes introducing clinicians, health services managers, public health professionals and others to health economic principles. Training programs aim to develop practical skills in health economics and health services research. Policy support is provided at all levels of the health care system by undertaking commissioned projects, through the provision of formal and informal advice as well as participation in working parties and committees.

Background. Although depressive symptoms in older adults are common, their relationship with disability and the influence of disability on the development of depressive symptoms over time is not well understood. This longitudinal study investigates the change trajectories of both depressive symptoms and disability, as well as their associations over time. Methods. Participants included 442 communitydwelling older adults living in Taiwan, aged 65 years or older, who completed six waves of survey interviews. Depression was scored with the Short Psychiatric Evaluation Schedule and disability with the instrumental and physical activities of daily living measure during each consecutive data collection wave. The autoregressive latent trajectory model and parallel latent growth curve modeling were adopted for analysis of the data. Results. The autoregressive latent trajectory model highlights that previous depressive symptoms (and disability) significantly contributed to the advancement of...

The relationship of family types with money influence, self-assessment, self-esteem and social relationship of women living in joint and nuclear families were studied in a randomized group design. 100 women tested. It was assumed that family types can influence study variables? Money Attitude Scale, Self-assessment Scale, Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale, Social Relationship Scale were administered. The SPSS analysis revealed significant response differences between joint and nuclear family system participants in terms of the variables; moreover, the means of all variables were found higher among joint family system. Some context information about mediating interaction between the variables came in light. More cultural context studies would reveal further.

The relationship of family types with money influence, self-assessment, self-esteem and social relationship of women living in joint and nuclear families were studied in a randomized group design. 100 women tested. It was assumed that family types can influence study variables? Money Attitude Scale, Self-assessment Scale, Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale, Social Relationship Scale were administered. The SPSS analysis revealed significant response differences between joint and nuclear family system participants in terms of the variables; moreover, the means of all variables were found higher among joint family system. Some context information about mediating interaction between the variables came in light. More cultural context studies would reveal further.

Background. Although depressive symptoms in older adults are common, their relationship with disability and the influence of disability on the development of depressive symptoms over time is not well understood. This longitudinal study investigates the change trajectories of both depressive symptoms and disability, as well as their associations over time. Methods. Participants included 442 community-dwelling older adults living in Taiwan, aged 65 years or older, who completed six waves of survey interviews. Depression was scored with the Short Psychiatric Evaluation Schedule and disability with the instrumental and physical activities of daily living measure during each consecutive data collection wave. The autoregressive latent trajectory model and parallel latent growth curve modeling were adopted for analysis of the data. Results. The autoregressive latent trajectory model highlights that previous depressive symptoms (and disability) significantly contributed to the advancement of more severe depressive symptoms (and disability). This model also indicates that disability significantly contributed to the onset of depressive symptoms and vice versa. The parallel latent growth curve modeling highlights that the disability intercept had significant effects on the depressive symptoms intercept, as did the depressive symptoms on disability. Furthermore, the disability slope had significant effects on the slope of the depressive symptoms. Conclusions. These findings demonstrate that disability is a stronger predictor of depressive symptoms than depressive symptoms are of disability. In addition, the prior existence of a health condition will lead to further deterioration of health conditions and that they often coexist.

Motivation for learning, which explains the impulses and motives for an individual to act to achieve his or her goals, is of great importance for students, particularly students of pre-academic preparatory programs. The literature suggests a relationship between self-esteem and motivation, yet there is a lack of studies that consider self-esteem among students in pre-academic preparatory programs and its relationship to motivation for learning. The main question of this study is whether there are differences in the motivation for learning among students in preparatory programs and regular students. Thus, it examines the relationship between self-esteem and motivation for learning among pre-academic preparatory program students and among regular students in their first year of study. Data collection was based on a questionnaire. The sample included 175 students who were enrolled in courses at Sakhnin College. Of these students, 43% were in the pre-academic program and 57% were in their first year of study in other departments. The findings show a positive relationship between self-image and motivation for learning among the two populations. The findings have theoretical implications as well as practical implications. They indicate that pre-academic students are not "lost"; they have motivations similar to the regular students. The practical pedagogical implications suggest that pre-academic students should be exposed to academic subjects beyond the core subjects and should be treated as equal to other students at various levels of the academic system.

In this industrial era 4.0 the author is faced with various kinds of challenges problems in real life, especially in preparing for the working period. Students at this time are required to be able to prepare competencies and be able to be competent in the hope that they can adjust to the employment situation. the challenge of era 4.0 requires someone to move dynamically, with other words must always be ready to move to accept challenges that are always changing and are required to be able to adjust to the situation that will occur in the future, especially during work. therefore, the challenge of competency can be the provision of the author in preparing to face challenges in the future working period.

While the purpose of this research is to investigate the relation between the job satisfaction and self-esteem of provincial directors of youth and sports, their self-esteem and job satisfaction has also been investigated with regard to some demographic variables. As data collection tools, “Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory”, “Minnesota Job Satisfaction Scale” and “Demographic Information Form” developed by Stanley Coopersmith have been used. The statistics of Kruskal Wallis, Mann Whitney U and Correlation Analysis have been used in the research. Following the statistics performed, a significant difference hasn’t been established between the variables of self-esteem of the participants, age, educational background, term of employment, term of employment as a manager, sex and marital status. No significant difference has been found between the job satisfaction of participants and sex; between the term of employment and term of employment as a manager. It has been determined that the scores of the individuals with a bachelor’s degree are significantly higher than those having master’s or PhD degree in the sub-dimensions of extrinsic satisfaction, intrinsic satisfaction and general satisfaction in job satisfaction, there is a significant difference between the extrinsic sub-dimension scores of the participants and the variable of age, extrinsic satisfaction scores of the individuals aged 40 and above are significantly higher than the individuals aged between 30-34. According to the results of Spearman correlation analysis, it has been ascertained that there is a negatively moderate relation between the self-esteem and extrinsic satisfaction and a positively moderate relation is in question between the self-esteem and general satisfaction.

Self-esteem and body image are central to coping succsefully with the developmental challenges of adolescence. However, the current knowledge surrounding self-esteem and body image is fraught with controversy. This study attempts to clarify some of them by addressing three questions: (i) Are the intra-individual developmental trajectories of self-esteem and body image stable across adolescence?

Although depressive symptoms in older adults are common, their relationship with disability and the influence of disability on the development of depressive symptoms over time is not well understood. This longitudinal study investigates the change trajectories of both depressive symptoms and disability, as well as their associations over time.

Analysis of continuous variables sometimes proceeds by selecting individuals on the basis of extreme scores of a sample distribution and submitting only those extreme scores to further analysis. This sampling method is known as the extreme groups approach (EGA). EGA is often used to achieve greater statistical power in subsequent hypothesis tests. However, there are several largely unrecognized costs associated with EGA that must be considered. The authors illustrate the effects EGA can have on power, standardized effect size, reliability, model specification, and the interpretability of results. Finally, the authors discuss alternative procedures, as well as possible legitimate uses of EGA. The authors urge researchers, editors, reviewers, and consumers to carefully assess the extent to which EGA is an appropriate tool in their own research and in that of others.

Research and theorizing on gender and age differences in self-esteem have played a prominent role in psychology over the past 20 years. However, virtually all empirical research has been undertaken in the United States or other Western industrialized countries, providing a narrow empirical base from which to draw conclusions and develop theory. To broaden the empirical base, the present research uses a large Internet sample (N ϭ 985,937) to provide the first large-scale systematic cross-cultural examination of gender and age differences in self-esteem. Across 48 nations, and consistent with previous research, we found age-related increases in self-esteem from late adolescence to middle adulthood and significant gender gaps, with males consistently reporting higher self-esteem than females. Despite these broad cross-cultural similarities, the cultures differed significantly in the magnitude of gender, age, and Gender ϫ Age effects on self-esteem. These differences were associated with cultural differences in socioeconomic, sociodemographic, gender-equality, and cultural value indicators. Discussion focuses on the theoretical implications of cross-cultural research on self-esteem.

This chapter is based on a study of the effects of different exit routes from working life on the individual worker's self-esteem. We compared three exit routes, retirement or exit on disability pension (lifelong option based on medical evaluation), retirement or exit on optional age pension (available between age 62 and 66), and ordinary old age pension (taking effect between 67 and 70 years of age). The hypotheses were tested on data from a panel study of a random sample of Norwegian workforce that conducted two measurements five years apart. Self-esteem was measured by the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale. The results revealed that, compared to those remaining at work, exiting on disability pension led to reduced self-esteem, while exiting on optional early pension or ordinary old age pension showed similar trends, although the differences were not significant for these groups. Exit on disability pension seemed to be a more negative experience for the individual, probably threatening the " self-maintenance motive " or the " motive of self-worth ". The findings present a unique contribution to the research on self-esteem and exit from working life.

This chapter is based on a study of the effects of different exit routes from working life on the individual worker's self-esteem. We compared three exit routes, retirement or exit on disability pension (life-long option based on medical evaluation), retirement or exit on optional age pension (available between age 62 and 66), and ordinary old age pension (taking effect between 67 and 70 years of age). The hypotheses were tested on data from a panel study of a random sample of Norwegian workforce that conducted two measurements five years apart. Self-esteem was measured by the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale. The results revealed that, compared to those remaining at work, exiting on disability pension led to reduced self-esteem, while exiting on optional early pension or ordinary old age pension showed similar trends, although the differences were not significant for these groups. Exit on disability pension seemed to be a more negative experience for the individual, probably threatening the "self-maintenance motive" or the "motive of self-worth". The findings present a unique contribution to the research on selfesteem and exit from working life.

Although depressive symptoms in older adults are common, their relationship with disability and the influence of disability on the development of depressive symptoms over time is not well understood. This longitudinal study investigates the change trajectories of both depressive symptoms and disability, as well as their associations over time.

Intraindividual patterns of time-lagged relationships among self-reports of worldviews/religious beliefs, self-concept, and physical and psychological wellbeing were investigated. Participants were older adults (mean age = 77 years) who were measured weekly covering a total of 25 weeks. Dynamic Factor Models were fitted to multivariate repeated measures data pooled over subsets of participants. The results showed significant timelagged cross-factor relationships suggesting that worldviews/religious beliefs had a significant direct effect on self-concept and physical health over 2 weeks. For each factor series, there were substantial autoregressive effects indicating persisting effects of factors on themselves over 1 or 2 weeks. A link between worldviews/religious beliefs and physical health was found in the time-lagged structure of within-person variability. The findings underscore the need to study both intraindividual change and interindividual differences in intraindividual variability to obtain a better understanding of behavior and behavioral development.

The reciprocal nature of the relationship between depression and personality traits (e.g., self-esteem, neuroticism) is still elusive (e.g., vulnerability and scar models). The aim of this study was to examine the longitudinal reciprocal effects between self-esteem and depressive mood in older adults. 757 participants aged 64-97 years assessed 4 times over a six-year period. Cross-lagged models were estimated using SEM. Our findings showed a relative stability over a six-year period of both self-esteem and depressive mood. There were no cross-lagged reciprocal effects between self-esteem and depressive mood over time, thereby rejecting both vulnerability and scar models. It means that self-esteem and depressive mood do not predate each other in old age. These results suggest a developmental phenomenon in which self-esteem and depressive mood follow two parallel and stable developmental trajectories through old age.

This chapter is based on a study of the effects of different exit routes from working life on the individual worker's self-esteem. We compared three exit routes, retirement or exit on disability pension (life-long option based on medical evaluation), retirement or exit on optional age pension (available between age 62 and 66), and ordinary old age pension (taking effect between 67 and 70 years of age). The hypotheses were tested on data from a panel study of a random sample of Norwegian workforce that conducted two measurements five years apart. Self-esteem was measured by the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale. The results revealed that, compared to those remaining at work, exiting on disability pension led to reduced self-esteem, while exiting on optional early pension or ordinary old age pension showed similar trends, although the differences were not significant for these groups. Exit on disability pension seemed to be a more negative experience for the individual, probably threatening the "self-maintenance motive" or the "motive of self-worth". The findings present a unique contribution to the research on selfesteem and exit from working life.

This chapter is based on a study of the effects of different exit routes from working life on the individual worker's self-esteem. We compared three exit routes, retirement or exit on disability pension (life-long option based on medical evaluation), retirement or exit on optional age pension (available between age 62 and 66), and ordinary old age pension (taking effect between 67 and 70 years of age). The hypotheses were tested on data from a panel study of a random sample of Norwegian workforce that conducted two measurements five years apart. Self-esteem was measured by the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale. The results revealed that, compared to those remaining at work, exiting on disability pension led to reduced self-esteem, while exiting on optional early pension or ordinary old age pension showed similar trends, although the differences were not significant for these groups. Exit on disability pension seemed to be a more negative experience for the individual, probably threatening the "self-maintenance motive" or the "motive of self-worth". The findings present a unique contribution to the research on selfesteem and exit from working life.

The present investigation aims at determining the extent of relation between scores on self-esteem and academic achievement A proportionate stratified sample of 370 ninth grade students (196 boys and 174 girls) has been used for the study.  Statistical techniques like Pearson r and t -test have been used for analysing the data. The results indicated that there is significant positive correlation between the variables under study (r = +0.32, significant at .01 level). The study further revealed that high achievers (N1 = 58) differ significantly from low achievers (N2 = 55) in self-esteem at .01 level (CR = 7.27).

"A factor analytical study on certain correlates of self -esteem was conducted using a stratified sample of 624 secondary school pupils (314 boys and 310 girls) drawn from Kerala State. Pearson r's showed that out of the eight variables studied (hypo- thesized as correlates of self- esteem), five had (significant relationship with self- esteem. The r's were generally low.  However, factor analysis of the 9 X 9 correl- ation  matrix  revealed  that  there  are  two  significant  factors.  The  first  factor,  on which self- esteem loaded along with six other variables, was identified as 'Cognitive Esteem' while the second factor, on which five variables loaded, was identified as 'Masculine Orientation'. The study showed in general that cognitive potentiality, faith  in  one's  own  abilities,  and  a  positive  attitude  towards  oneself  and  towards others are variables  which go together.
"

""Fear of success (FOS) scale, the Kerala Masculinity-Femininity Scale and Self-Esteem Inventory were administered to a sample of 150 women in the age group of 20-45 years. Results showed a positive relationship between FOS and femininity and a negative relationship with self-esteem. However, the data based on mean differences among the high and low scorers on self-esteem and femininity failed to bring out the predicted interaction between
these variables in influencing fear of success.""

A factor analytical study on certain correlates of self-esteem was conducted using a stratified sample of 624 secondary school pupils (314 boys and 310 girls) drawn from Kerala State. Pearson r's showed that out of the eight variables studied (hypo¬thesized as correlates of self-esteem), five had (significant relationship with self-esteem. The r's were generally low. However, factor analysis of the 9 X 9 correl¬ation matrix revealed that there are two significant factors. The first factor, on which self-esteem loaded along with six other variables, was identified as 'Cognitive Esteem' while the second factor, on which five variables loaded, was identified as 'Masculine Orientation'. The study showed in general that cognitive potentiality, faith in one's own abilities, and a positive attitude towards oneself and towards others are variables  which go together.

"A factorial study on the antecedent variables of self-esteem was conducted on a stratified sample of 624 secondary school pupils (314 boys and 310 girls) of Kerala state. The variables used for the study were: socioeconomic status, parental attitude, home environment, home relations, acceptance-rejection, dependence-independence, autocracy-democracy, mutual trust and approval, and self-esteem. The data were analyzed using Pearson r, followed by factor analysis. The results of factor analysis of the
9 X 9 correlation matrix revealed three significant factors, viz., 'Family Harmony', 'Physical Facility', and 'Parenting Practices'. Self-esteem loaded significantly on all the three factors."

A self esteem inventory was developed making use of the direct self-report method. There were 50 items in the draft scale. A sample of 400 secondary school pupils (211 boys and 189 girls) was used for item analysis. Forty seven items showed high  discriminating power (significant at .01 level), of which, 25 items were selected for inclusion in the final scale. The final scale was administered on different samples for estimating its reliability and validity, and for developing the norms. The split-half reliability of the scale is found to be 0.95, after correction using Spearman-Brown formula (N = 100), and the retest reliability 0.90 (N= 120). The validity of the scale obtained with teacher rating as external criterion is 0.41, which is significant at .01 level (N = 53). Separate centile norms have been developed for boys (N=218) and girls (N=202).

Considerable research has been devoted to examining the relations between self-esteem and social support. However, the exact nature and direction of these relations are not well understood. Measures of self-esteem, and social support quantity and quality were administered to 961 adolescents across five yearly time points (M age = 13.41 years). Structural equation modeling (SEM) was utilized to test between a self-esteem antecedent model (self-esteem precedes changes in social support), self-esteem consequence model (social support precedes change in self-esteem), and a reciprocal influence model. Self-esteem reliably predicted increasing levels of social support quality and network size across time. In contrast, the consequence model was not supported. The implications of this for helping adolescents to develop higher quality social support structures are discussed.