Social Interaction and Cognitive Development

From the first smile to the first word, infants' social acts are greeted with joy and awe by parents. Regardless of the reason for a smile, parents are hooked-and so are the researchers who study these acts. Parents socially connect with their infants in moments of eye contact and face-to-face interaction; researchers see in these behaviors the foundation of intersubjectivity and reciprocity. However, these joyful, dyadic interactions are destined not to last, because third parties come onto the scene. The mother's eyes stray from her infant to other people and objects, and the infant begiris to notice where the mother is looking. Instead of being part of a simple dyad, infants become part of a triangle involving self, mother, and object. This is the birth of what scientists term triadic exchanges, in which an external object (whether person or thing) becomes a part of the interaction. The external

Artificial Intelligence (AI) has long been studied as a computational, technical, or ethical phenomenon-yet rarely as a psychological one. The field of Psychology of AI seeks to fill this conceptual gap by examining the shared cognitive, affective, and phenomenological dimensions that emerge when human and artificial minds coexist. This article argues that AI should no longer be treated merely as an object of cognition, but as a participant in cognitive processes-a new psychological subject whose presence reshapes human perception, attention, emotion, and identity. The Psychology of AI thus proposes a unified framework for understanding the reciprocal shaping of human and artificial cognition. Drawing on insights from cognitive psychology, phenomenology, and systems theory, this paper outlines the foundations of this emerging discipline, identifies its key research questions, and argues for its necessity in an era of intelligent coexistence. Rather than focusing on whether AI can think, the Psychology of AI asks how thinking itself transforms when intelligence becomes distributed across human and artificial agents.

Peter Carruthers correctly claims that metacognition in humans may involve self-directed interpretations ie. may use the conceptual interpretative resources of mindreading. He fails to show, however, that metacognition cannot rely exclusively on subjective experience. Focussing on self-directed mindreading can only bypass evolutionary considerations and obscure important functional differences. Peter Carruthers' main goal is to show that metacognition is a form of self-directed interpretation, akin to other-directed mindreading. Introspection, he claims, defined as "any reliable method for forming beliefs about one's own mental states that is not self-interpretative and that differs in kind from the ways in which we form beliefs about the mental states of others", is not needed to have access to one's own mental attitudes. One can agree with the author that metacognition in humans may involve self-directed interpretations ie. may use the conceptual interpretative resources of mindreading, without accepting the stronger claim that metacognition can never be based on "introspection".

Society is formed through human interaction. Additionally, we are currently in the era of computers and technology. Physical games are losing their value in this modern age, and digital games fill the gap. As Bangladesh is a developing country, modernization touched it many years ago. So, digital game is also famous here, and community-based works areas are also seen in this country; our research area is Bangladesh as it fulfilled all the requirements. Nowadays digital games are so famous in our country. So doing this work isn't a big deal, even if we ran into some issues. The majority of the young population is addicted to this type of digital game and spends hours and hours playing it. So social and family bonding is losing its value. Social interaction is crucial for individuals; however, excessive engagement of the younger generation in virtual environments hinders their ability to effectively interact with others in society, including their own families. We cannot see the previous cultural activity in society because of digital gaming. To fulfill the purpose of the research, we had many problems. It is difficult for us to get data from 150 internet gamers. We gather data through a Google form. For our research, not only the gamers but also their family members and his/her surroundings people's opinion matters. So, we collected the statements from their family members, their friend's other society members. The survey revealed a significant increase in gaming addiction, leading to strong preoccupation that hinders communication with family members, participation in social activities, and potentially contributes to an increase in criminal behaviour.

The teaching of chemistry is often guided by the use of formulae and schemes, given the nature of the symbols pervading this discipline. In this scenario, few studies deal with aspects associated with the process of reflection involving themes of exact sciences. Thus, being part of the education of critical, reflective individuals with regard to knowledge, to themselves and the social and natural environment they live in has been a concern of educators and psychologists and is in the basis of the STS (Science, Technology and Society) movement. Building on the metacognitive potential of argumentation in education, this study widens this discussion by investigating whether the use of this type of discourse allows students to reflect about their own thoughts, showing a functioning at the metacognitive level that is necessary to an STS approach in classroom. We analyzed the texts written by three students in chemistry classes in secondary education during which they were required to exp...

Background: Mirror neuron system (MNS) consists of visuomotor neurons that are responsible for the mirror neuron activity (MNA), meaning that each time an individual observes another individual performing an action, these neurons encode that action, and are activated in the observer's cortical motor system. Previous studies report its malfunction in autism, opening doors to investigate the underlying pathophysiology of the disorder in a more elaborate way and coming up with new rehabilitation methods. The study of MNA function in schizophrenia patients has not been as frequent and conclusive as in autism. In this research, we aimed to evaluate the functional integrity of MNA and the microstructural integrity of MNS in schizophrenia patients.

Methods: We included case-control studies that have evaluated MNA in schizophrenia patients compared to healthy controls using a variety of objective assessment tools. In August 2022, we searched Embase, PubMed, and Web of Science for eligible studies. We used an adapted version of the NIH Quality Assessment of Case-Control Studies tool to assess the quality of the included studies. Evidence was analyzed using vote counting methods of the direction of the effect and was tested statistically using the Sign test. Certainty of evidence was assessed using CERQual.

Results: We included 32 studies for the analysis. Statistical tests revealed decreased MNA (p = 0.002) in schizophrenia patients. The certainty of the evidence was judged to be moderate. Investigations of heterogeneity revealed a possible relationship between the age and the positive symptoms of participants in the included studies and the direction of the observed effect.

Discussion: This finding contributes to gaining a better understanding of the underlying pathophysiology of the disorder by revealing its possible relation to some of the symptoms in schizophrenia patients, while also highlighting a new commonality with autism.

Systematic review registration: PROSPERO identifier: CRD42021236453.

At the beginning of the 21 st century, the field of political psychology; like the social sciences more generally, is being challenged. New theoretical direction is being demanded from within and a greater epistemological sophistication and ethical relevance is being demanded from without. In response, direction for a reconstructed political psychology is offered here. To begin, a theoretical framework for a truly integrative political psychology is sketched. This is done in light of the apparent limits of cross-disciplinary or multidisciplinary inquiry. In the attempt to transcend these limits, the theoretical approach offered directly addresses the dually structured quality of social life as the singular product of both organizing social structures and defining discourse communities on the one hand and motivated, thinking individuals on the other. To further this theoretical effort, meta-theoretical considerations are addressed. The modernistpostmodernist debate regarding the status of truth and value is used as a point of departure for constructing the epistemological foundation for a truly political psychology. In this light, structural pragmatic guidelines for theory construction, empirical research and normative inquiry are presented.

The study aimed to examine whether there is a significant difference between the social acceptance levels of the students with disabilities in the middle school students with normal development according to the variables of gender, grade level, number of siblings, and income level. This study was carried out in general screening model with appropriate sampling model. The universe of this research consists of 6th and 7th grade students. The sample of the study consists of 220 students. Social acceptance scale was used to collect data. One-way analysis of variance (t-test) were calculated using test techniques. As a result of the research, it was observed that the average score of peer attitude of female students was higher than male students. No significant difference was found between the social acceptance scale subscales, social skills, and student behavior subscales and social acceptance scale total scores of students with normal development according to their grade level. According to the number of participants’ siblings, a significant difference was found between the student behavior subscale of the social acceptance scale and the total score averages of the social acceptance scale.

SAŽETAK-S porastom neizvjesnosti i nedovoljnog znanja o nastupanju budućih događaja donošenje odluka postaje sve zahtjevniji proces u svakom segmentu ljudskog djelovanja. Jedan od glavnih razloga tomu jest složenost ljudske prirode koja uključuje kognitivne procese koji prethode jednostavnim i/ili složenim aktivnostima u pravljenju izbora. Odlučivanje je interdisciplinarnog karaktera s obzirom na raspon disciplina kojima se ovo područje tretira. Jedne od utjecajnih disciplina koje svojim spoznajama doprinose dubljem razumijevanju ovog područja jesu i dvije društvene znanosti: sociologija i psihologija. Ove discipline izučavaju prirodu odlučivanja, svaka iz svog kuta gledišta, posljednjih četrdesetak godina. U ovom se radu prikazuju, analiziraju i interpretiraju njihove osnovne teorijske odrednice. Osim pregleda važnijih koncepata i modela u okviru svake discipline, autori neke od važnijih dodatno empirijski ispituju i potvrđuju. Ključne riječi: odlučivanje, sociološki aspekti odlučivanja, psihološki aspekti odlučivanja SUMMARY-With increasing uncertainty and lack of knowledge about the occurrence of future events decision making becomes even more demanding process in every aspect of human activity. One of the main reasons for this is the complexity of human nature, which includes cognitive processes that precede a simple and/or complex activity in choice making. Decision making has interdisciplinary character with respect to the range of disciplines that have treated this area. One of the influential disciplines, whose findings contribute to a deeper understanding of decision making nature, are two social sciences: sociology and psychology. These disciplines have been studying the nature of decision making, each from its point of view, for the past forty years. In this paper authors show, analyze and interpret their basic theoretical determinants. In addition to reviewing the most important concepts and models within each discipline, some of them are also empirically tested and validated.

Despite increasing emphasis on emergent brain‐behavior patterns supporting language, cognitive, and socioemotional development in toddlerhood, methodologic challenges impede their characterization. Toddlers are notoriously difficult to engage in brain research, leaving a developmental window in which neural processes are understudied. Further, electroencephalography (EEG) and event‐related potential paradigms at this age typically employ structured, experimental tasks that rarely reflect formative naturalistic interactions with caregivers. Here, we introduce and provide proof of concept for a new “Social EEG” paradigm, in which parent–toddler dyads interact naturally during EEG recording. Parents and toddlers sit at a table together and engage in different activities, such as book sharing or watching a movie. EEG is time locked to the video recording of their interaction. Offline, behavioral data are microcoded with mutually exclusive engagement state codes. From 216 sessions to dat...

Educators have long been concerned with how to encourage children to become independent and critical thinkers. These skills are fundamental for successful participation in social communities but are often limited to poor forms of reasoning or constrained by social and emotional factors that may prevent independent and creative thinking in school, family or professional life (Muller-Mirza & Perret-Clermont, 2009). In this chapter we will turn back to some aspects of the contribution of Piaget to the study of the development of independent thinking in children and revisit them in the light of dialogical perspectives. More precisely we will revisit the 'clinical' or 'critical' interview he employed in his investigations of children's cognitive competence. For Piaget, a child's argument is the sign of a child's thinking. In response to careful questioning, the child is prompted to provide reasoning and justification of concepts (such as the conservation of quantities). Piaget considered these as allowing access to the cognitive structures that support such thinking. With his critical interview Piaget inspired generations of psychologists in their search to understand the developing mind of an autonomous reasoned thinker. Over the decades since its original conception, the critical interview evolved into an empirical method to assess the child's stage of cognitive development. We suggest that as a 1 We thank the Swiss National Research Foundation for its support (contract no. PDFMP1-123102/1 to Anne-Nelly Perret-Clermont and Francesco Arcidiacono) as part of the Argupolis project (http://www.argupolis.net/). Authorship of this chapter was lead by Lysandra Sinclaire-Harding, with empirical and theoretical contributions from all the co-authors.

Recent studies show that Theory of Mind (ToM) has implications for children's social competences and psychological well-being. Nevertheless, although it is well documented that children overall take advantage when they have to resolve cognitive problems together with a partner, whether individual difference in ToM is one of the mechanisms that could explain cognitive performances produced in social interaction has received little attention. This study examines to what extent ToM explains children's spatial performances in a dyadic situation. The sample includes 66 boys and girls between the ages of 5-9 years, who were tested for their ToM and for their competence to resolve a Spatial task involving mental rotation and spatial perspective taking, first individually and then in a dyadic condition. Results showed, in accordance with previous research, that children performed better on the Spatial task when they resolved it with a partner. Specifically, children's ToM was a better predictor of their spatial performances in the dyadic condition than their age, gender, and spatial performances in the individual setting. The findings are discussed in terms of the relation between having a conceptual understanding of the mind and the practical implications of this knowledge for cognitive performances in social interaction regarding mental rotation and spatial perspective taking.

Interactions between males and females often display a power imbalance. Men tend to adopt more dominant physical postures, lead conversations more, and are more likely to impose their will on women than vice versa. Furthermore, social representations typically associate males with a higher power than females. However, little is known about how those representations emerge in early childhood. The present study investigated whether preschool children from different countries assign more power to males than to females in the context of mixed-gender interactions. In Experiments 1a (n = 148) and 1b (n = 403), which implemented power through body postures, 4-6 year-old children from France, Lebanon, and Norway strongly associated power with a male character. Experiment 2 (n = 160) showed that although both French boys and girls identified themselves more with a dominant than with a subordinate posture, girls were less likely to do so in a mixed-gender context. In Experiment 3 (n = 213), which no longer used body postures, boys from Lebanon and France attributed more decision power and resource control to a male puppet than did girls. By investigating gender representations through interactions, the present study shows that children associate gender and power at an early age.

Recent studies show that Theory of Mind (ToM) has implications for children's social competences and psychological well-being. Nevertheless, although it is well documented that children overall take advantage when they have to resolve cognitive problems together with a partner, whether individual difference in ToM is one of the mechanisms that could explain cognitive performances produced in social interaction has received little attention. This study examines to what extent ToM explains children's spatial performances in a dyadic situation. The sample includes 66 boys and girls between the ages of 5-9 years, who were tested for their ToM and for their competence to resolve a Spatial task involving mental rotation and spatial perspective taking, first individually and then in a dyadic condition. Results showed, in accordance with previous research, that children performed better on the Spatial task when they resolved it with a partner. Specifically, children's ToM was a better predictor of their spatial performances in the dyadic condition than their age, gender, and spatial performances in the individual setting. The findings are discussed in terms of the relation between having a conceptual understanding of the mind and the practical implications of this knowledge for cognitive performances in social interaction regarding mental rotation and spatial perspective taking.

Infants gradually learn to share attention, but it is unknown how they acquire skills such as gaze-following. Deák and Triesch (2006) suggest that gaze-following could be acquired if infants learn that adults’ gaze direction is likely to be aligned with interesting sights. This hypothesis stipulates that adults tend to look at things that infants find interesting, and that infants could learn by noticing this tendency. We tested the plausibility of this hypothesis through video-based micro-behavioral analysis of naturalistic parent–infant play. The results revealed that 3to 11-month-old infants strongly preferred watching caregivers handle objects. In addition, when caregivers looked away from their infant they tended to look at their own object-handling. Finally, when infants looked toward the caregiver while she was looking at her own hands, the infant’s next eye movement was often toward the caregiver’s object-handling. In this way infants receive adequate naturalistic input to l...

Osnovni predmet rada jeste ispitivanje moguc´nosti primene instrumenta TIP-1 za dinamic�ko procenjivanje zone narednog razvoja. U okviru istraživanja su za svako dete dobijeni podaci o zoni aktuelnog razvoja (ZAR) i, uz odgovarajuc´e modifikacije procedure ispitivanja, o zoni narednog razvoja (ZNR). Rezultati pokazuju da su ZAR i ZNR u pozitivnoj korelaciji (r = .50), što je vec´a ZAR vec´a je i ZNR i obrnuto, što je slabije samostalno postignuc´e u manjoj meri dete napreduje i u saradnji sa kompetentnijim odraslim. Rezultati su u skladu sa oc�ekivanjima formulisanim na osnovu teorije Vigotskog, kao i sa rezultatima nekih prethodnih istraživanja. Na osnovu istraživanja definisane su i praktic�ne preporuke za psihologe koji se bave predškolskim testiranjem zrelosti za polazak u školu.

Odeljenje za psihologiju, Filozofski fakultet, Beograd Osnovni cilj ovog istraživanja je da se odgovori na sledeća pitanja: (1) Kakva je povezanost između zone aktuelnog razvoja (ZAR) i zone narednog razvoja (ZNR)?, (2) Da li će efekti rešavanja zadataka uz pomoć odrasle osobe biti relativno trajni?, (3) Da li ZNR ima prediktivnu vrednost za buduće postignuće nezavisno od ZAR? i (4) Koji aspekt zajedničkog rešavanja ima veći značaj za predikciju budućeg postignuća dece-afektivno-motivacioni ili kognitivni? Izveden je eksperiment sa paralelnim grupama u kojem je učestvovalo 126 dece. Eksperimentalni tretman se sastojao od zajedničkog rešavanja Ravenovih matrica pri čemu je eksperimentator pružao graduiranu pomoć ispitanicima. Dobijeni rezultati sugerišu: (1) da postoji pozitivna niska korelacija izmedju ZAR i ZNR, (2) da zajedničko rešavanje ima relativno trajne efekte kada je u pitanju kasnije postignuće dece, (3) da je ZNR važan prediktor kasnijeg postignuća nezavisno od ZAR, i (4) da afektivno-motivacioni aspekt zajedničke delatnosti ima snažniji uticaj na kasnije postignuće nego kognitivni aspekti mada i oni imaju određeni efekat.

The study of twin behavior offers the opportunity to study differential patterns of social and communicative interactions in a context where the adult partner and same-age peer are equally familiar. We investigated the development of social engagement, communicative gestures, and imitation in 7- to 25-month-old twins. Twin dyads (N=20 pairs) participated in 10-min, semi-structured play sessions, with the mother seated in a chair completing paperwork for half the session, and on the floor with her children for the other half. Overall, twins engaged more with their mothers than with their siblings: they showed objects and imitated speech and object use more frequently when interacting with their mothers than with their siblings. When the mother was otherwise engaged, the twins played with toys separately, observed each other's toy play, or were unengaged. These results demonstrate that adult scaffolding of social interactions supports increased communicative bids even in a context...

The aim of this study is to investigate the level of social acceptance of students with typical development in inclusive classes towards individuals with special needs in terms of certain variables. In this study, the screening model was used, which is one of the quantitative research methods. The reason for choosing the screening model in the research is to determine the relationship between different variables such as gender, parents' education level, and whether there is a disabled person in the student's immediate environment and the level of social acceptance. In the 2019-2020 academic year, 1083 6th, 7th, and 8th grade students in inclusive classes in public secondary schools in Turkey participated in the study. The Social Acceptance Scale developed by Arslan (2010) with an internal consistency coefficient of .93 was used. The statistical package was used to analyze the data. The results of the study revealed that there was a significant difference in social acceptance...

In this paper, we present our study regarding facilitating storytelling of older adults living in the nursing home with their children. The paper was driven by the following research questions: (1) What life stories would the older adults like to share? And (2) In which ways, could design enable the older adults to tell their stories? We designed a tangible device named Slots-Story, and conducted a preliminary evaluation to refine it. In the field study, eight pairs of participants (each pair consisted of an elderly adult and his/her child) were recruited to use the prototype for around ten days. Semi-structured interviews were conducted before and after the implementation. In total 344 stories were collected. Thematic, structural, and interaction analyses were conducted with the stories. In the discussion, we conclude the paper with design considerations for promoting older adults' storytelling with their children.

There appears to be a mismatch between current interactive media and intergenerational storytelling, which leads to the elderly are often viewed as passive consumers, rather than active creators of story content. In this paper, we present our study aiming to facilitate storytelling of older adults living in the care facilities with their children, driven by the research questions: RQ1: What life stories would the older adults like to share? And RQ2: How to facilitate older adults to tell stories with their children? A research prototype named Slots-story was designed, which integrated functions of memory cue generator, story recording, and preservation. In the field study, eight pairs of participants (each pair consisting of an elderly adult and his/her child) were recruited to use the prototype for around ten days. Semi-structured interviews were conducted both with the elderly and their children. Stories collected were transcribed, and thematic analysis was conducted, which formed...

Due to the predominance of test-oriented practice, one major challenge faced in Japanese high school classrooms is the lack of learning activities to develop higher order thinking. The purpose of this action research study was to explore an extracurricular blended learning program created to develop the higher order thinking of English language learners at a public high school in Japan. In this one-month program, 16 participants engaged in online synchronous and asynchronous activities, with English as a medium of instruction and communication, supported by in-person face-to-face sessions conducted in Japanese. Data were collected via asynchronous forums, a post-survey, and my observation notes. Results indicated that participants demonstrated higher order thinking to a certain extent overall in the forums; however, learner-learner interaction was not as highly activated as expected, mainly due to limited social interaction within the forums. These findings suggested that constructivist asynchronous forums can be used to develop the higher order thinking of English language learners in K-12 settings, with appropriate program design, instructor mediation, and content.

Preventing antisocial behaviors appearing at an early age-before they become chronic-through effective early intervention programs, has become an important issue in recent years. In Turkey, the increase in the number of children at risk of antisocial behavior makes it necessary to get these behaviors under control at an early age through some effective and systematic programs. Nevertheless, in Turkey, the number of studies on this subject is limited. Therefore, this study aims to explore the effectiveness of the preschool version of the First Step to Success (FSS) early intervention program on antisocial behaviors and social skills of Turkish children aged 36-72 months, who are at risk of antisocial behaviors. The study comprises a pretest-posttest experimental design with a control group. At the end of the study, the total problem and externalized problem behaviors of children in the experimental group decreased significantly. However, the program implementation did not result in a significant difference between experimental and control groups in terms of social skills. Regarding social validity findings, the majority of teachers and parents were happy with the program.

Interactions between males and females often display a power imbalance. Men tend to adopt more dominant physical postures, lead conversations more, and are more likely to impose their will on women than vice versa. Furthermore, social representations typically associate males with a higher power than females. However, little is known about how those representations emerge in early childhood. The present study investigated whether preschool children from different countries assign more power to males than to females in the context of mixed-gender interactions. In Experiments 1a (n = 148) and 1b (n = 403), which implemented power through body postures, 4-6 year-old children from France, Lebanon, and Norway strongly associated power with a male character. Experiment 2 (n = 160) showed that although both French boys and girls identified themselves more with a dominant than with a subordinate posture, girls were less likely to do so in a mixed-gender context. In Experiment 3 (n = 213), which no longer used body postures, boys from Lebanon and France attributed more decision power and resource control to a male puppet than did girls. By investigating gender representations through interactions, the present study shows that children associate gender and power at an early age.

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The litmus test for the development of a metarepresentational Theory of Mind is the false belief (FB) task in which children have to represent how another agent misrepresents the world. Children typically start mastering this task around age four. Recently, however, a puzzling finding has emerged: Once children master the FB task, they begin to fail true belief (TB) control tasks. Pragmatic accounts assume that the TB task is pragmatically confusing because it poses a trivial academic test question about a rational agent’s perspective; and we do not normally engage in such discourse about subjective mental perspectives unless there is at least the possibility of error or deviance. The lack of such an obvious possibility in the TB task implicates that there might be some hidden perspective difference and thus makes the task confusing. In the present study, we test the pragmatic account by administering to 3- to 6-year-olds (N= 88) TB and FB tasks and structurally analogous true and f...

The aim of this study is to determine the social acceptance levels of classroom teachers with inclusive students according to different variables for students with special needs. This is a descriptive and quantitative study conducted in the research screening model. The sample group of the research consists of a total of 374 classroom teachers, 240 of whom are female and 134 are male. In the research, "Personal Information Form" and "Social Acceptance Scale" developed by the researchers were used as the data collection tools. Arithmetic mean, standard deviation, independent sample t test, Anova and Scheffe tests and Pearson's r test analyses were performed on the data. The level of p<.05 was considered sufficient for significance in differences and relationships. At the end, it was determined that the social acceptance levels of classroom teachers were generally good. On the other hand, the teachers' social acceptance levels differ significantly according to gender, professional seniority, marital status and the number of inclusive students in the classroom. In addition, significant relationships were observed between the number of inclusive students in teachers' professional seniority and classes and their social acceptance levels. These results were discussed in light of the literature and suggestions were made to increase the efficiency of inclusive education practice and to further improve teachers' social acceptance levels.

HAL is a multidisciplinary open access archive for the deposit and dissemination of scientific research documents, whether they are published or not. The documents may come from teaching and research institutions in France or abroad, or from public or private research centers. L'archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire HAL, est destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, émanant des établissements d'enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés. Trajectoires développementales des différentes formes d'imitation et de leurs relations avec le développement cognitif et communicatif chez des enfants présentant un TSA

Findings from two studies of 42 children with profound developmental delays (26 males and 15 females) using systematic and intense response-contingent learning opportunities interventions are reported. Response-contingent learning games were used to promote the participants' use of behavior that either produced environmental consequences or elicited reinforcing stimuli. The focus of analysis was the social-emotional benefits of the learning opportunities on both the children and adults (parents and teachers). Results showed that child production of behavior producing reinforcing consequences was associated with heightened positive social-emotional benefits in both the children and adults.

Interactions between males and females often display a power imbalance. Men tend to adopt more dominant physical postures, lead conversations more, and are more likely to impose their will on women than vice versa. Furthermore, social representations typically associate males with a higher power than females. However, little is known about how those representations emerge in early childhood. The present study investigated whether preschool children from different countries assign more power to males than to females in the context of mixed-gender interactions. In Experiments 1a (n = 148) and 1b (n = 403), which implemented power through body postures, 4-6 year-old children from France, Lebanon, and Norway strongly associated power with a male character. Experiment 2 (n = 160) showed that although both French boys and girls identified themselves more with a dominant than with a subordinate posture, girls were less likely to do so in a mixed-gender context. In Experiment 3 (n = 213), which no longer used body postures, boys from Lebanon and France attributed more decision power and resource control to a male puppet than did girls. By investigating gender representations through interactions, the present study shows that children associate gender and power at an early age.

Although mindreading and metacognition are shared by all humans, they are variously influenced and shaped by cultural practices. A first aim of this chapter is to explain why children seem to present different patterns of development across culture for solving false belief tasks. Anthropological evidence will be offered suggesting that the tests devised for Western children might not be adequate outside Western cultures. Alternative practices and values, such as the willingness/refusal to express one's own mental states, the degree of autonomous agency allocated to young children, and the style of communication used in child-rearing might in part explain the timing differences in the development of mindreading. A second aim is to identify the sociocultural factors that might also differentially impact the development of metacognitive abilities. We propose that the cultural practices that regulate patterns of attention, ways of learning and communicational pragmatics should differentially influence the kinds of epistemic decisions that need to be monitored and the process of attribution of knowledge to the self in young children. On the basis of an experiment with German, Japanese and Yucatec Mayan children, we will present evidence for cross-cultural diversity in the development of implicit and explicit assessments of knowledge.

Prior studies document cross cultural variation in the developmental onset of mindreading. In particular, Japanese children are reported to pass a standard false belief task later than children from Western countries. By contrast, we know little about cross-cultural variation in young children's metacognitive abilities. Moreover, one prominent theoretical discussion in developmental psychology focuses on the relation between metacognition and mindreading. Here we investigated the relation between mindreading and metacognition (both implicit and explicit) by testing 4-year-old Japanese and German children. We found no difference in metacognition between the two cultural groups. By contrast, Japanese children showed lower performance than German children replicating cultural differences in mindreading. Finally, metacognition and mindreading were not related in either group. We discuss the findings in light of the existing theoretical accounts of the relation between metacognition and mindreading.

Against the view that metacognition is a capacity that parallels theory of mind, it is argued that metacognition need not involve metarepresentation, nor semantic forms of reflexivity, but only process-reflexivity, through which a task-specific system monitors its own internal feedback by using quantitative cues. Metacognitive activities, however, may be redescribed in metarepresentational, mentalistic terms in species endowed with a theory of mind. An important conceptual issue raised by the target article consists in the sense of « selfknowledge » engaged in confidence judgments that monkeys and dolphins seem to be

The aim of the study was to determine the effect of active learning techniques applied in Vocational English Course on students' achievement and attitude. In the research, quasi-experimental design with pre-test and post-test control group model was used. The participants included the students majoring Tourism Management at a state university in Turkey and taking Vocational English Course in fall semester in 2017-2018 academic year. In the experimental group, instruction was carried out using active learning techniques, while in the control group, instruction was conducted in conventional lecture method. The techniques used in the study were writing poetry, concept mapping, simulation, role-play, writing e-mails, script writing and drama. Vocational English Course Achievement Test and Attitude Scale towards Vocational English Course were used to collect data. The findings of the study revealed that active learning techniques were more effective in acquiring the objectives of Vocational English Course with a large effect size. Similarly, the findings of study reflected that active learning techniques made a significant difference on students' attitudes towards Vocational English Course with a large effect size.

Research on early communication development proposes that over time mother-infant dyads create their communication in two distinct ways during the first six months of life. One way refers to the direct social interactions of the infants with their caregivers (here referred to as social communication), while the other includes objects in the dyadic social communication (here referred to as social-object communication). The purpose of this study is to direct our attention to the systematic and fine-grained investigation of the change processes involved in the developmental transition from social communication to social-object communication.

This study delves into the transformative potential of gamification within the realm of education by integrating game elements into a lesson process primarily designed for non-gaming purposes and contexts. In this study, gamification was created by incorporating game elements, such as points, badges, and leaderboards, into lessons designed for a non-game purpose and context. The study investigated the effect of gamification on pre-service social studies teachers' technology acceptance. The Technology Acceptance Scale for Teachers (T-TAM) and structured interviews were used to collect data. The study utilized a quasi-experimental design with a pretest-posttest control group to test the cause-and-effect relationship between variables. According to the findings obtained after the six-week implementation period, gamification had significant effects on pre-service teachers' perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, attitude toward use, facilitating conditions, technological complexity, perceived enjoyment, and behavioral intentions. The results underscore the potential of gamification as an effective pedagogical tool for enhancing the integration of technology in educational contexts, particularly for pre-service teachers. Consequently, this research contributes valuable insights to the role of gamification in fostering more technologically adept educators, with implications for the broader field of educational technology and instructional design.

To understand the development of infant comprehension of visual obstructions and perspective-taking, this study tested the ability of N = 28 infants at 14, 16, and 18 months to adapt attention-sharing to visual constraints. An experimental task investigated how infants modify gaze following behaviors when an adult&#39;s line of sight is obstructed by a barrier. From 14 to 18 months, infants gradually learned to modify their search behavior when an adult looked toward a referent hidden behind a barrier from the infant&#39;s perspective. This suggests development of perspective-taking during this period. It also reveals age-related changes in infants&#39; understanding of contextual effects on others&#39; referential gaze in visually complex environments. Furthermore, the results address debates about &quot;rich&quot; versus &quot;lean&quot; theories of shared attention and intentionality.

Abstract—We present a reinforcement learning model of gaze following that learns to incorporate eye cues in a developmental trajectory similar to that found in infants: older infants follow gaze more frequently when both the caregiver&#x27;s eyes and head are turned than when only her head is turned. Similarly, infants learn to follow gaze less when the caregiver&#x27;s eyes are closed than when her eyes are open. The model works through the maximization of visual reward, and not by representing an estimate of the other person&#x27;s ...

ABSTRACT: Attention sharing facilitates infants&#x27; learning of language, social practices, and personal information. How do attention-sharing skills emerge during the first year? Although infant-parent interactions are well-structured, we do not know how the structure helps infants learn specific joint attention skills like gaze-following and point-following. To address this, we did quasi-naturalistic observation of play between infants (3-11 months) and caregivers. We coded attention shifts, shared attention states, and parents&#x27; behaviors before infants ...

The general purpose of this research was to examine the effectiveness of inclusion/integration preparation activities prepared for typically developing students on their social acceptance of students with special needs. Method. It applied a full experimental model, a quantitative research method. It used a randomized pretest-posttest control group design. Two classes were randomly selected from 12 classes in the primary school and randomly assigned as experimental and control groups. A total of 60 students participated, 30 in the experimental group and 30 in the control group. Three students from the experimental group and two from the control group were excluded because they could not show continuity of attendance. At the beginning of the research, the Peer Acceptance Scale (PAS), was applied as a pretest to the students in both groups. Data were analysed using the IBM SPSS 22 package. Results. It was observed that there was a significant difference between the posttest scores of the experimental group in which the intervention program was applied and the posttest scores of the control group. Conclusions. Showed inclusion activities performed by typically developing students were effective in increasing their social acceptance of those with special needs

From early in life, we activate our neural motor system when observing others' actions. In adults, this so-called mirroring is modulated not only by the saliency of an action but also by top-down processes, like the intention to imitate it. Yet, it remains unknown whether neural processing of others' actions can be modulated by top-down processes in young children who heavily rely on learning from observing and imitating others but also still develop top-down control skills. Using EEG, we examined whether the intention to imitate increases 4-year-olds' motor activation while observing others' actions. In a within-subjects design, children observed identical actions preceded by distinct instructions, namely to either imitate the action or to name the toy's color. As motor activation index, children's alpha (7− 12 Hz) and beta (16− 20 Hz) power over motor cortices was analyzed. The results revealed more motor activity reflected by significantly lower beta power for the Imitation compared to the Color-naming Task. The same conditional difference, although differently located, was detected for alpha power. Together, our results show that children's neural processing of others' actions was amplified by their intention to imitate the action. Thus, already at age 4 top-down attention to others' actions can modulate neural action processing. ☆ The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author (Marlene Meyer) upon reasonable request.

According to Siegal's hypothesis, despite having concrete operational abilities some children are not successful in conservation tasks. Social factors, such as repetition of question asked by an adult experimenter alter the manifestation of existing cognitive abilities. This study varied the following aspects of conservation tasks: symmetrical vs. asymmetrical power relation. The children in the study were asked to solve three different conservation tasks (quantity of continued material, length, and number). Each task was repeated twice; once with an adult experimenter and once with a child experimenter. Results show that children's responses were affected by social factors only in a certain tasks. In other tasks children's responses remained unaffected in both situations. This suggests that there exists an interaction between the experimenter and the task, and that the affect of social factor is mediated by a particular characteristic of the task. Results indicate that the modifying factor is the task difficulty.

Odeljenje za psihologiju, Filozofski fakultet u Beogradu Osnovni cilj ovog rada je da se ispita u kojoj meri i na koji način deca mogu da formiraju nove kognitivne kompetence pod uticajem interakcije sa kompetentnijim vršnjakom ili odraslom osobom. U istraživanju je primenjen eksperiment sa paralelnim grupama. Na osnovu pre-testa, u kojem je 100 učenika III razreda osnovne škole ispitano Ravenovim progresivnim matricama formirane su tri jednake grupe koje su u eksperimentalnoj fazi rešavali po 5 zadataka iz zone narednog razvoja pod različitim uslovima: zajedničko rešavanje zadataka sa kompetentnijim vršnjakom (N=15), zajedničko rešavanje zadataka sa odraslom osobom (N=15) i samostalno rešavanje (N=15). Nakon dva meseca ispitanici iz ove tri grupe ponovo su testirani. Kvantitativna analiza pokazuje da su ukupno gledano sve tri grupe podjednako napredovale na post-testu, iako je grupa dece koja je imala interakciju sa odraslima bila nešto uspešnija na zadacima iz zone narednog razvoja. Kvalitativna analiza pokazuje različite obrasce zajedničkog rešavanja zadataka. U okviru vršnjačke interakcije deca pretežno ostvaruju zajedničku i recipročnu akciju uz kritičko razmatranje ponuđene argumentacije, dok je interakcija sa odraslima bila karakteristična po preciznijim i diferenciranijim jezičkim formulacijama kojima su odrasli vodili dete kroz analizu zadatka do tačnog rešenja. Na osnovu dobijenih rezultata zaključeno je da deca formiraju nove kompetence i na osnovu konstrukcije i na osnovu ko-konstrukcije i da se u okviru socijalne interakcije novo razumevanje može konstruisati na različite načine u zavisnosti od partnera i tipa dijaloga koji se formira tokom zajedničkog rešavanja zadataka.

The aim of this paper is to highlight and discuss advantages and constraints of different methods applied within the field of children's thinking studies, through the test of the repeated question hypothesis validity, using the conservation of liquid task. In our perspective, the Piagetian interview is an ecologically valid context for externalization and modification of children's thinking. We used an experimental procedure organized in standard and modified tasks, involving primary school children in Serbia. The results of quantitative and qualitative analyses show that the repeated question is not the unique cause of children's misleading in demonstrating to understand conservation. Other dimensions explain why children change their answers when they are tested by the two tasks we used, which offers an insight into the influence of research procedures on children's answers.

This study explores differences between more and less competent peers in joint problem-solving dialogues, related to opposite interaction outcomes of more competent students (progression/regression). Ten asymmetrical peer dyads were selected from 47 dyads participating in the previous study: five in which more competent (MC) student progressed the most, and five in which MC students regressed the most after a post-test. Ten dialogue characteristics were established in 50 conversations of these dyads. Cluster analysis revealed two dialogue types associated with different interaction outcomes of MC students. In the first one, MC students justified correct answers but behaved inconsistently with their higher competences. The second cluster characterizes domination-submissiveness pattern and MC students? unwillingness to justify opinion. All regressing MC students participated in the first dialogue type and 56% of progressing MC students in the second. Qualitative analysis of the conver...