Sheep pox

Protecting animals from infection is a major obligation of every veterinarian’s work in order to preserve animal welfare while assuring human health. Highly infectious animal diseases can reduce the performances of food producing animals and may have a great economical impact on many industries. A reliable supply of pure, safe, potent, and effective vaccines is essential for maintenance of animal health and the successful operation of animal health programmes. Immunisation of animals with high quality vaccines is the primary means of control for many animal diseases. The requirements and procedures described here are intended to be general in nature and to be consistent with published standards that are generally available for guidance in the production of veterinary vaccines.

Aim: This study aimed to characterize sheeppox virus (SPPV) using the P32 gene of the Capripoxvirus (CaPVs). Materials and Methods: Clinical samples of skin, scabs, and nasal swab from suspected outbreaks Horalagallu (n=13) and Gerahalli (n=11) at Ramanagara district in Karnataka were collected. All the samples were initially subjected to genus-specific diagnostic polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The pooled clinical samples from each outbreak were also subjected to virus isolation. The isolates were confirmed by CaPVs genotyping PCR targeting the full-length P32 gene, followed by sequencing and phylogenetic analysis. Results: The clinical signs and lesions varied from mild to severe degree with no specificity between age and sex. Specific cytopathic changes in cell morphology were observed in infected Vero cells from both outbreaks, which were confirmed by PCR. The complete P32 gene from two outbreaks was successfully amplified with the expected amplicon size of 1006bp. The sequenci...

This case report describes a suspected outbreak of sheep pox at the Techiman Disease Investigation Farm (DIF) in Ghana. The suspected outbreak affected over fifty sheep of different age groups, leading to significant morbidity and mortality. Clinical examination and post-mortem analyses revealed classic signs of sheep pox, including febrile nodular skin lesions and systemic involvement. Samples collected from infected animals were sent to the Accra Veterinary Laboratory to confirm the causative agent, Capripoxvirus but due to lack of reagents, the samples were followed to Austria. This case underscores the importance of early detection, comprehensive diagnostic measures, and the inclusion of sheep pox as a notifiable disease in Ghana’s veterinary health regulations to enhance biosecurity measures and disease control strategies.

Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) is a highly contagious, economically important viral disease of small ruminants, targeted for global eradication by the year 2030. The recent geographic surge in PPR virus distribution, economic implications, the success of the rinderpest eradication campaign, and ongoing national/regional efforts convinced the FAO and OIE to initiate a global PPR control and eradication strategy. Since its discovery, a series of diagnostic tools have been developed for detecting PPR virus and virus-specific antibodies. Furthermore, it is understood that diagnostic and vaccine-monitoring tools are inevitable components of the four-stage strategy of global PPR eradication from assessment to the post-eradication phase. However, these tools may not be suitable for all stages of PPR control and eradication. For instance, diagnostics such as ELISA could be used for mass screening of clinical and serum samples, whereas immunochromatographic tests can be used at the field level as a pen-side test. Yet, assays with higher sensitivity, such as RT-PCR, RT-PCR ELISA, real-time RT-PCR and LAMP are important for early diagnosis of PPR and also, theoretically, during the late stages of eradication or when sampling non-natural hosts. Moreover, during the later stages of any control program, suspected/doubtful outbreaks will have to be reconfirmed using multiple laboratory tests. Hence, diagnostics can and should be efficiently applied at different stages of the PPR control and eradication campaign based on available resources and the number of samples to be tested. This article provides an overview of the various PPR diagnostic tools and suggests where and how they should be logically applied during the different phases of global PPR control and eradication.

Background: Sheep pox and goat pox are contagious viral diseases of sheep and goats, respectively. The diseases result in substantial economic losses due to decreased milk and meat production, damage to hides and wool, and possible trade restriction. A study was undertaken in Amhara region of Ethiopia. A cross-sectional study design was used to estimate the sero-prevalence and identify associated risk factors, while retrospective study design was used to assess the temporal and spatial distribution of the disease. A total of 672 serum samples were collected from 30 Kebeles and tested using virus neutralization test. Results: From a total of 672 sera tested, 104 (15.5%) were positive for sheep and goat pox virus antibody; from which 56 (17%) were sheep and 48 (14%) were goats. The diseases were prevalent in all study zones, the highest sero-prevalence was observed in South Gondar (20.9%) and the lowest in North Gondar and West Gojjam zones (11.9% each). From the potential risk factors considered (species, sex, age, agro-ecology and location); only sex and age were significantly associated (p < 0.05) with the diseases in multivariable logistic regression. Female and young animals were at higher risk than their counterparts. From January 2010 to December 2014, a total of 366 outbreaks, 12,822 cases and 1480 deaths due to SP and 182 outbreaks, 10,066 cases and 997 deaths due to GP were recorded in Amhara National Regional State. Conclusion: Both the serological and the outbreak data revealed that sheep and goat pox is one of the most prevalent and widespread diseases of sheep and goats in the study area. Hence, annual mass vaccination program must be implemented for economic and viable control of sheep and goat pox diseases in the Amhara region in particular and at a national level in general.

The outbreak of Sheep and goat pox (SGP) viral infections have increasingly been reported despite vaccinating the majority of sheep populations in Iran. The objective of this study was to predict the impacts of the SGP P32/envelope variations on the binding with host receptors as a candidate tool to assess this outbreak. The targeted gene was amplified in a total of 101 viral samples, and the PCR products were subjected to Sanger sequencing. The polymorphism and phylogenetic interactions of the identified variants were assessed. Molecular docking was performed between the identified P32 variants and the host receptor and the effects of these variants were evaluated. Eighteen variations were identified in the investigated P32 gene with variable silent and missense effects on the envelope protein. Five groups (G1-G5) of amino acid variations were identified. While there were no amino acid variations in the G1 (wild-type) viral protein, G2, G3, G4, and G5 proteins had seven, nine, twelve, and fourteen SNPs, respectively. Based on the observed amino acid substitutions, multiple distinct phylogenetic places were occupied from the identified viral groups. Dramatic alterations were identified between G2, G4, and G5 variants with their proteoglycan receptor, while the highest binding was revealed between goatpox G5 variant with the same receptor. It was suggested that the higher severity of goatpox viral infection originated from its higher affinity to bind with its cognate receptor. This firm binding may be explained by the observed higher severity of the SGP cases from which G5 samples were isolated.

Background and Aim: Sheep scab is one of the most contagious diseases of sheep found in rural communities worldwide and is a major health and welfare concern for sheep farming. Information on the attitudes of communal farmers to sheep scab remains speculative in the Eastern Cape Province. This study aimed to investigate knowledge, attitudes, and practices related to the prevalence of sheep scab among communal sheep farmers in Eastern Cape Province, South Africa.

Materials and Methods: From June to August 2022, a cross-sectional survey using a semi-structured questionnaire (n = 160) was conducted in two rural communities of the Enoch Mgijima Local Municipality in Eastern Cape Province. Purpose sampling was used to obtain respondents’ knowledge, attitudes, and management practices regarding sheep scabs.

Results: Among respondents, 81% were males and 19% were females. The majority of sheep farmers (59%) in both communities were aware of sheep scabs, but the majority (64%) did not receive any farming training. The majority of sheep farmers (65%) believed that sheep scab was the most serious threat to their sheep production since it increased mortality. In the past 3 years, approximately 57% of respondents reported an increase in the prevalence of sheep scab. The majority of farmers reported wool loss as the most noticeable clinical symptom (73%). More than 80% of sheep farmers do not use acaricide on a regular basis. Sixty-one percent of farmers prefer a pour-on topical application method. The frequency of annual dipping was every fortnight (40%), during summer and winter (24%). Most farmers (66%) regularly vaccinate their sheep.

Conclusion: The prevalence of sheep scab is increasing in these communities; however, a better understanding of the factors that facilitate its transmission is required to allow improved management and control of this disease. The government must involve extension officers and distribute them to disseminate information to farmers. Thus, it will be easy to translate the literature into action.

Keywords: communal sheep farmers, Eastern Cape Province, season, sheep scab control methods, sheep scab.

Background Sheep and goat pox (SGP) caused by sheep poxvirus (SPV) and goat poxvirus (GPV) respectively; are transboundary and World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH)-notifiable viral diseases. There is barely any coherent information about the distribution and prevalence of SGP for Uganda. We therefore conducted this study to describe the temporal and spatial distribution of SGP suspected outbreaks in Uganda for the period 2011–2020 as well as serologically confirm presence of SGP antibodies in suspected SGP outbreaks reported in 2021–2022. Results Thirty-seven [37] SGP outbreaks were reported across the country during the study period. North-eastern region [that comprises of Karamoja region] had the highest number of outbreaks [n = 17, 45%]; followed by Central [n = 9, 2.4%], Northern [n = 8, 2.2%] and Western region [n = 3, 0.08%]. Reports from district veterinary personnel indicate that the prevalence of; and mortality rate and case fatality rate associated with SGP were 0.0...

Outbreaks of swinepox [caused by a swinepox virus (SWPV)] in pigs were investigated in 3 districts of Assam, a north eastern state of India. Diagnosis of the disease was carried out employing both standard virological as well as molecular methods. Three representative isolates from different places were selected for inoculation into confluent monolayers of Porcine Kidney-15 (PK-15) cell line. The cytopathic effects were characterized by cell rounding, nuclear vacuolation, cell fusion, granulation of cells and finally detachment from third blind passage onwards. The three genes viz., - and of SWPV was targeted for confirmation of the virus. Swinepox virus was successfully adapted to the PK-15 cell line from seventh passage onwards. The isolated viruses were characterized by sequencing and phylogenetic analysis of P42 gene (extracellular envelope protein), a homologue of vaccinia virus F13L gene. In India, studies on swine pox are very limited. This is the first report on successful i...

Bluetongue (BT), peste des petits ruminants (PPR) and sheep pox are the most economically important viral diseases of sheep in India. Serum samples obtained from sheep in five northern states of the country were screened for antibody against these agents to explore the extent of spread of these infections. A total of 516 serum samples were screened for the presence of antibodies against BT and PPR viruses. Of these, 155 samples were also tested for antibodies against sheep pox virus. BT antibodies were found in 293 (56.8%) animals, PPR virus antibodies in 215 (41.7%) and sheep pox virus antibodies in 106 (68.3%). Of the serum samples tested, 25.2% were positive for antibodies against all three viruses. These findings clearly demonstrated not only the enzootic nature of disease, but also the co-existence of antibodies to more than one of these viruses which would indicate that concurrent infections were common. Therefore, control measures should focus in combating all three diseases ...

Bluetongue (BT), peste des petits ruminants (PPR) and sheep pox are the most economically important viral diseases of sheep in India. Serum samples obtained from sheep in five northern states of the country were screened for antibody against these agents to explore the extent of spread of these infections. A total of 516 serum samples were screened for the presence of antibodies against BT and PPR viruses. Of these, 155 samples were also tested for antibodies against sheep pox virus. BT antibodies were found in 293 (56.8%) animals, PPR virus antibodies in 215 (41.7%) and sheep pox virus antibodies in 106 (68.3%). Of the serum samples tested, 25.2% were positive for antibodies against all three viruses. These findings clearly demonstrated not only the enzootic nature of disease, but also the co-existence of antibodies to more than one of these viruses which would indicate that concurrent infections were common. Therefore, control measures should focus in combating all three diseases ...

The seroprevalence study of peste des petits ruminants (PPR) in sheep and goats was carried out in 5 districts of Saurashtra region of Gujarat state. A total of 828 (prevaccinated) and 423 (postvaccinated) serum samples from sheep and goats were screened for PPR specific antibodies using PPR specific c-ELISA. Overall seroprevalence of PPR was found to be 53.86 (446/828) and 72.34 (306/423) % in pre- and post-vaccinated small ruminants, respectively. Overall pre-/post-vaccinated seroprevalance rates were highest in Bhavnagar district (83.89/96.30 %), followed by Surendranagar (73.61/77.78 %), Amreli (56.25/83.33 %), Jamnagar (32.22/43.33 %) and Rajkot (27.78/64.44 %) districts. Pre and post vaccination seropositivity was noted higher in goats (59.90/78.75 %) than in sheep (35.75/52.43 %). Males in both the species (goats and sheep) showed higher seroprevalence (60.11/89.01 %) as compared to their female counterparts (52.09/67.77 %). Higher prevaccinated seroprevalence was recorded am...

Aim: To isolate, identify, and differentiate Capripoxviruses (CaPV) (sheep pox virus and goat pox virus) infections by egg inoculation, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and 30 kDa RNA polymerase subunit gene-based polymerase chain reaction (PCR) (RPO30) in clinically affected animals in Hawamdia township of Giza Governorate, Egypt. Materials and Methods: A total of 37 scab samples were collected from clinically suspected field cases of sheep pox and goat pox. These samples were collected during (2014-2015) during different outbreaks of sheep pox and goat pox from Hawamdia township of Giza Governorate, Egypt. The samples were subjected to egg inoculation, TEM, and (RPO30) gene-based PCR. By using the egg inoculation: Previously prepared 37 scab samples (n=23 sheep and n=14 goats) were inoculated on the chorioallantoic membrane of specific pathogen free (SPF) embryonated chicken eggs (12 days old age). In the presence of the suitable percentage of humidity and candling, the inoculated eggs were incubated at 37°C. By using the TEM: Samples showed positive pock lesions on the chorioallantoic membranes, were fixed in glutaraldehyde, then processed and sectioned for TEM. Using the (RPO30) gene-based PCR assay, 30 of positive samples after egg inoculation (n=19 sheep and n=11 goats) were screened. Results: Using the egg inoculation, a characteristic pock lesions for poxviruses were seen in 30/37 (n=19 sheep and n=11 goats) (81.08%). Using the TEM, examination of the positive samples after egg inoculation revealed positive result in 23/30 (n=15 sheep and n=8 goats) (76.66%). The positive results represented by the presence of negatively stained oval-shape virus particles. Using the (RPO30) gene-based PCR assay, out of 30 total of positive samples after egg inoculation (n=19 sheep and n=11 goats) were screened, 27 (90%) samples (n=17 sheep and n=10 goats) were positive. The given band sizes of sheep and goats were 172 and 152 bp, respectively. Conclusion: PCR assay depended on RPO30 gene can be used lonely for the detection, identification, and differentiation of CaPVs. RPO30 gene-based PCR assay in combination with gene sequencing helps in molecular epidemiological studies of CaPV infection.

Introduction Sheep and goat pox virus (SGPV) is a systemic contagious disease causing extreme illness and death in small ruminants. Methods A cross-sectional study was conducted in West Gojjam and Awi zone of Amhara national regional state Northwest Ethiopia, from November 2018 to May 2019 with the objective of pox virus outbreak investigation and molecular detections in sheep and goats (shoats). The study included clinical examinations of lesions, laboratory analysis, and questionnaire survey. Study locations were selected randomly when an active outbreak was reported and observed. Results A total of 485 small ruminants (303 sheep and 182 goats) suspected of shoat pox were examined for the presence of specific skin lesions, 71 (14.64%) showed pox lesions, 35 (11.55%) sheep and 36 (19.78%) goats, and 24 (4.95%) had died. The study revealed highest morbidity rate in Jawie (31.25%) and Gunagua (14.89%) districts in goats and sheep, respectively. Lowest morbidity rate was recorded in D...

Background and Aim: Bluetongue (BT) is a non-contagious, infectious disease of wild and domestic ruminant animals caused by the BT virus (BTV). Bangladesh having a border with a BTV-endemic country, India and a substantial number of susceptible animals. Therefore, this study aimed to estimate BTV seroprevalence and potential risk factors. Materials and Methods: We collected 150 serum samples from indigenous sheep from Chattogram, Bangladesh. We screened the serum samples using a competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for detecting BTV-specific immunoglobulin. Results: We detected antibodies against BTV in 39.3% (59/150; 95% confidence interval: 31.5–47.6) of all sampled sheep. Factors like sampling site, sheep rearing location, rearing sheep with other farm species, and body condition score had a significant (p &lt; 0.05) influence on the seroprevalence of BTV. Conclusion: The findings show that indigenous sheep have a higher BTV seroprevalence, necessitating sustained survei...

Background and Aim: Bluetongue (BT) is a non-contagious, infectious disease of wild and domestic ruminant animals caused by the BT virus (BTV). Bangladesh having a border with a BTV-endemic country, India and a substantial number of susceptible animals. Therefore, this study aimed to estimate BTV seroprevalence and potential risk factors.

Materials and Methods: We collected 150 serum samples from indigenous sheep from Chattogram, Bangladesh. We screened the serum samples using a competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for detecting BTV-specific immunoglobulin.

Results: We detected antibodies against BTV in 39.3% (59/150; 95% confidence interval: 31.5–47.6) of all sampled sheep. Factors like sampling site, sheep rearing location, rearing sheep with other farm species, and body condition score had a significant (p < 0.05) influence on the seroprevalence of BTV.

Conclusion: The findings show that indigenous sheep have a higher BTV seroprevalence, necessitating sustained surveillance for early diagnosis and a better understanding of virus epidemiology in Bangladesh.

Bluetongue (BT) and peste-des-petits-ruminants (PPR) are major transboundary diseases of small ruminant, which are endemic in India. Testing of bluetongue virus (BTV) and peste-des-petits-ruminants virus (PPRV) from recent outbreaks (2015-2016) in different regions of Haryana State of India revealed that 27.5% of the samples showed the presence of dual infection of BTV and PPRV. Analysis of Seg-2 of BTV (the serotype-determining protein) showed the presence of BTV-12w in several isolates. However, analysis of N gene fragment amplicons showed that viruses belong to lineage IV were most closely related to a pathogenic strain of PPRV from Delhi. This is the first report of co-circulation of PPRV lineage IV and bluetongue virus serotype 12 in the state.

Equine influenza is a contagious viral disease that affects all members of the family Equidae, i.e., horses, donkeys and mules. The authors describe the pattern of equine influenza outbreaks in a number of states of India from July 2008 to June 2009. The disease was first reported in June 2008 in Katra (Jammu and Kashmir) and spread to ten other states within a year. All outbreaks of equine influenza in the various states were confirmed by laboratory investigations (virus isolation and/or serological confirmation based on haemagglutination inhibition [HI] assays of paired samples) before declaring them as equine influenza virus-affected state(s). The virus (H3N8) was reported from various locations in the country including Katra, Mysore (Karnataka), Ahmedabad (Gujarat), Gopeshwar and Uttarkashi (Uttarakhand) and was isolated in 9- to 11-day-old embryonated chicken eggs. The virus was confirmed as H3N8 by HI assays with standard serum and amplification of full-length haemagglutinin a...

Goat pox virus is a highly contagious viral disease of goats causing huge economic losses in animal productivity. This study was designed for isolation, identification and molecular characterization of goat pox virus in Suez Canal area. From a total of 200 goats in 6 flocks located in Suez Canal provinces; Ismailia, Suez, and Port Said, about 26 skin scab samples mixed in 6 pools and 116 serum samples were collected in the period from 2017 to 2019. Typical pock lesion were observed in 4/6 (66.66%) of pooled samples, while the rest of the sample 2/6 (33.33%) showed no pathological changes on the chorioallantois membrane (CAM) of 11-13 days old embryonated chicken eggs (ECE). A total of 18 positive samples out of 116 examined sera were recorded by AGPT with a total positive percentage of 15.52 %. Goat pox virus antibody titer was higher in vaccinated animals than non-vaccinated animals. Goats less than 6 months old exhibited higher antibody titer than animals more than 6 months old. Conventional PCR was done for 3 pooled goat pox isolates with capripox specific primers for P32 (primer 1) and 3 pooled isolate for p32 (primer 2) one pooled isolate for RPO30 gene. PCR were carried out for goat pox virus isolates recovered from animal skin crusts and CAM harvest of infected eggs. The size of the PCR products by 1.5% gel electrophoresis with capripox specific primers for P32 (primer 1, 2) and RPO30 gene were 89 and 390 and 151 base pairs respectively.

Background and Aim: Two endemic capripox infectious diseases, sheeppox (SP) and goatpox (GP) are common in Asia, Africa, and the Middle East. Sheep and goats, in general, are considered current assets of small and marginal farmers and have significant economic value in terms of meat, wool, and skin/hide production. Sheep and goat populations in India total 148.88 million and 74.26 million, respectively. Capripox caused US$ 2.3 million (Indian Rupee [INR] 105 million) in economic damages in Maharashtra (India) alone, and it took over 6 years for a flock to recover from the outbreak. The projected yearly loss at the national level is US$ 27.47 million (INR 1250 million). As a result, Capripox diseases put small and marginal farmers under much financial strain. The present study estimates the seroprevalence of SP and GP diseases in the Asian and African continents using systematic review and meta-analysis. The results of the study will help researchers and policymakers to understand the spatial and temporal distribution of the disease and its burden. In addition, the results are also helpful to design and implement location-specific prevention and eradication measures against these diseases.

Materials and Methods: Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis guidelines of Cochran collaborations were used for systematic review and subsequently meta-analysis were used. The literature was collected from various databases. Initial search string resulted in more than nine thousand articles for the period 2000 to 2020 using the different combinations of keywords and Boolean operators (or not) asterisk∗ and quotation marks. Out of 9398 papers, 80 studies were chosen for complete test reviews and quality bias evaluation using the inclusion and exclusion criteria. Finally, 21 articles were used for the meta-analysis. The statistical study employed fixed effects and random effects models using R.

Results: Seroprevalence of SP and GP was calculated using studies with a cumulative sample size of 4352, out of which sheep and goats' samples together contribute 48%, followed by sheep (32%) and goat (21%). The result of the meta-regression revealed that detection techniques had a significant impact on the overall effect size at 5% level (Qm=14.12). Subgroup analysis of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) test with samples was further grouped into two categories based on the median, and it revealed that 62% of samples used PCR as a detecting test followed by group-II.

Conclusion: From the study, it is concluded that SP and GP diseases are highly prevalent; hence, effective vaccines, proper education to farmers through extension activity, and transboundary disease movement restriction are necessary for the control and eradication of the disease.

Equine influenza is a contagious viral disease that affects all members of the family Equidae, i.e., horses, donkeys and mules. The authors describe the pattern of equine influenza outbreaks in a number of states of India from July 2008 to June 2009. The disease was first reported in June 2008 in Katra (Jammu and Kashmir) and spread to ten other states within a year. All outbreaks of equine influenza in the various states were confirmed by laboratory investigations (virus isolation and/or serological confirmation based on haemagglutination inhibition [HI] assays of paired samples) before declaring them as equine influenza virus-affected state(s). The virus (H3N8) was reported from various locations in the country including Katra, Mysore (Karnataka), Ahmedabad (Gujarat), Gopeshwar and Uttarkashi (Uttarakhand) and was isolated in 9- to 11-day-old embryonated chicken eggs. The virus was confirmed as H3N8 by HI assays with standard serum and amplification of full-length haemagglutinin a...

The study was undertaken to assess the prevalence of antibodies to Capripoxviruses among small ruminants of Odisha, India. A total of 500 random serum samples collected from 214 sheep and 286 goats across 10 agro-climatic zones of Odisha, were screened using whole virus antigen-based indirect ELISA for antibodies against Capripoxviruses. Results were analyzed by suitable statistical methods. Screening of 500 serum samples showed seropositivity of 8.88% and 31.47% in sheep and goats, respectively, for Capripoxviruses. The prevalence rate according to agro-climatic zone ranged from 0% (North Eastern coastal plain zone) to 48.57% (North central plateau zone) for goat pox, and 0% (Western undulating zone and North central plateau) to 22.22% (South Eastern ghat zone) for sheep pox. The difference in prevalence rates among the various agro-climatic zones was statistically significant (p&lt;0.05) for goats, but not for sheep. Antibody prevalence rates among various districts were recorded ...

Sheep pox is an acute and highly contagious viral disease of sheep characterized by high fever, generalized nodules or papules, rarely vesicles, lesions in the lungs, kidneys liver etc. and death. Sheep pox, an endemic infectious viral disease in Kashmir Valley has a negative impact on sheep husbandry. The disease results in huge economic losses by causing morbidity, mortality, decreased production, decreased feed conversion ratio, reduced weight gain and fertility along with increased age at first lambing, inter lambing intervals, reduced litter size. The economic burden is enhanced due to the treatment costs, abortions, mastitis, damage to pelts etc. The present article reports sheep pox outbreak at high land pastures (Mangendoub and Dudkhotu) of Bandipora district during summer 2020 among 3 sheep flocks comprising of 2124 animals. A total of 413 animals developed symptoms out of which 71 died. The overall attack rate (morbidity %), mortality and case fatality rates of 19.44%, 3.34% and 17.19% were observed respectively, in the present outbreaks. It is concluded that sheep pox is an endemic disease in Kashmir and the present outbreak was a result of lack of vaccination.

Sheep pox is an acute and highly contagious viral disease of sheep characterized by fever, generalized papules or nodules, vesicles (rarely), internal lesions (particularly in the lungs), and death. It causes huge economic losses due to high mortality in flocks, decreased growth and increase in treatment costs. It is endemic in many parts of the world including India. An outbreak of Sheep pox was observed in cross breed (Kashmir Merino) sheep during autumn season of 2019 in District Budgam and Bandipora, J&K. The infected animals showed high fever and inappetance followed by appearance of papules initially in areas devoid of wool like axilla, inguinal region, face etc. The morbidity, mortality and case fatality rates in the present study were 35.50%, 4.31% and 13.26%, respectively. The morbidity and mortality were higher in lambs and ewes than adults and males, respectively. The mortality and morbidity was higher in lambs and female sheep as compared to adults and males. Non-vaccination, mixing of livestock at highland pastures and non-segregation of infected were among precipitating factors of the sheep pox outbreak.

Aim: This study aimed to characterize sheeppox virus (SPPV) using the P32 gene of the Capripoxvirus (CaPVs). Materials and Methods: Clinical samples of skin, scabs, and nasal swab from suspected outbreaks Horalagallu (n=13) and Gerahalli (n=11) at Ramanagara district in Karnataka were collected. All the samples were initially subjected to genus-specific diagnostic polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The pooled clinical samples from each outbreak were also subjected to virus isolation. The isolates were confirmed by CaPVs genotyping PCR targeting the full-length P32 gene, followed by sequencing and phylogenetic analysis. Results: The clinical signs and lesions varied from mild to severe degree with no specificity between age and sex. Specific cytopathic changes in cell morphology were observed in infected Vero cells from both outbreaks, which were confirmed by PCR. The complete P32 gene from two outbreaks was successfully amplified with the expected amplicon size of 1006bp. The sequencing and phylogenetic analysis revealed that both the outbreaks were due to SPPV and shared high similarity with published SPPVs from Karnataka and other parts of India. Conclusion: The current study showed that complete P32 gene-based genotypic PCR assay can be used for genetic characterization and molecular epidemiology of both sheeppox and goatpox diseases and also to differentiate the causative agents. The sequence analysis revealed 100% similarity among the two outbreak isolates suggesting the same strain of the virus and common source of infection for the outbreaks.

A combined vaccine against Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR) and Sheep/Goat Pox (SGP) was developed and applied in the field, using a new association of vaccine strains: PPR Nigeria 75 strain with a titre of 10 4.1 TCID50 and Sheep Pox Romania strain with a titre of 10 4.0 TCID50. Safety and efficacy were evaluated on goats and sheep in comparison with monovalent PPR and SGP vaccines. Goats were challenged by PPR virulent strain and sheep by SP virulent strain. The result shows that the combined PPR/SGP vaccine confers a good protection against both PPR and SGP infection with no significant difference with mono-valent vaccines. The combined vaccine was used in the field on sheep flocks and good sero-conversion was detected for both diseases as soon as 14 days post vaccination.

Virulent isolate of peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRV) of Indian origin (PPRV Jhansi 2003) initially adapted in Vero cells was further propagated in thermoadapted (Ta) Vero cells grown at 40°C for attaining thermo-adaption and attenuation of virus for development of Ta vaccine against PPR in goats and sheep. The virus was attenuated up to 50 passages in Ta Vero cells, at which, the virus was found sterile, innocuous in mice and guinea pigs and safe in seronegative goats and sheep. The developed vaccine was tested for its immunogenicity in goats and sheep by subcutaneous inoculation of 100 TCID 50 (0.1 field dose), 10 3 TCID 50 (one field dose) and 10 5 TCID 50 (100 field doses) of the attenuated virus along with controls as per OIE described protocols for PPR vaccine testing and were assessed for PPRV-specific antibodies 7-28 days post vaccination (dpv) by PPR competitive ELISA and serum neutralization tests. The PPRV antibodies were detected in all immunized goats and sheep and goats were protective when challenged with virulent PPRV at 28th dpv along with controls for potency testing of the vaccine. The attenuated vaccine did not induce any adverse reaction at high dose (10 5 TCID 50 ) in goats and sheep and provided complete protection even at low dose (10 2 TCID 50 ) in goats when challenged with virulent virus. There was no shedding and horizontal transmission of the attenuated virus to in-contact controls. The results indicate that the developed PPR Ta attenuated virus is innocuous, safe, immunogenic and potent or efficacious vaccine candidate alternative to the existing vaccines for the protection of goats and sheep against PPR in the tropical countries like India.

Bluetongue (BT), peste des petits ruminants (PPR) and sheep pox are the most economically important viral diseases of sheep in India. Serum samples obtained from sheep in five northern states of the country were screened for antibody against these agents to explore the extent of spread of these infections. A total of 516 serum samples were screened for the presence of antibodies against BT and PPR viruses. Of these, 155 samples were also tested for antibodies against sheep pox virus. BT antibodies were found in 293 (56.8%) animals, PPR virus antibodies in 215 (41.7%) and sheep pox virus antibodies in 106 (68.3%). Of the serum samples tested, 25.2% were positive for antibodies against all three viruses. These findings clearly demonstrated not only the enzootic nature of disease, but also the co-existence of antibodies to more than one of these viruses which would indicate that concurrent infections were common. Therefore, control measures should focus in combating all three diseases ...

Aim: We describe a laboratory investigation carried out to confirm the etiology of the heavy mortality (37 animals died out of total 44, i.e. 84%) in goats in Ri-Bhoi district of Meghalaya, Northeast region of India in December 2015. The clinical signs observed were abortion, diarrhea, high fever (up to 104°F), pox lesion in the skin, and respiratory distress. Materials and Methods: The samples comprising whole blood, sera, and pox lesion were collected from the animals (n=7) from an outbreak for the screening of peste des petits ruminants (PPR) and poxviruses. The whole blood and sera were used for screening of PPR virus (PPRV) by sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and antibody by competitive ELISA as well as detection of PPRV partial N gene by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The skin lesions were used for the detection of poxvirus by PCR.

Formazione L a Bluetongue (BT) è una malattia vi-rale trasmessa da vettori, causata da un Orbivirus (Fam. Reoviridae)[13]. Il virus della Bluetongue (BTV) può in-fettare ruminanti domestici e selvatici, ca-melidi e, occasionalmente, anche carnivori [15]. L&#39;infezione è trasmessa da insetti pun-gitori del genere Culicoides (Culicoides spp.). Bovini e caprini rimangono quasi sempre asintomatici e sono considerati ospiti con funzione di &quot; reservoir &quot; [14]. Nelle specie selvatiche è ancora da accerta-re la reale patogenesi della malattia. La Sardegna, per la sua posizione geografi-ca, rappresenta una &quot; porta d&#39;ingresso &quot; di questa patologia e, tuttora, dopo 13 anni dalla prima epidemia, il virus continua a pro-vocare danni ingenti fra la popolazione ovi-na. Attualmente sono conosciuti 26 sierotipi di BTV, gli ultimi dei quali, il sierotipo BTV-25 (Toggenburg orbivirus, Switzerland) e il sie-rotipo BTV-26 (Kuwait), sono stati isolati, ri-spettivamente, in capri...

Bluetongue (BT), peste des petits ruminants (PPR) and sheep pox are the most economically important viral diseases of sheep in India. Serum samples obtained from sheep in five northern states of the country were screened for antibody against these agents to explore the extent of spread of these infections. A total of 516 serum samples were screened for the presence of antibodies against BT and PPR viruses. Of these, 155 samples were also tested for antibodies against sheep pox virus. BT antibodies were found in 293 (56.8%) animals, PPR virus antibodies in 215 (41.7%) and sheep pox virus antibodies in 106 (68.3%). Of the serum samples tested, 25.2% were positive for antibodies against all three viruses. These findings clearly demonstrated not only the enzootic nature of disease, but also the co-existence of antibodies to more than one of these viruses which would indicate that concurrent infections were common. Therefore, control measures should focus in combating all three diseases ...

Bluetongue (BT), peste des petits ruminants (PPR) and sheep pox are the most economically important viral diseases of sheep in India. Serum samples obtained from sheep in five northern states of the country were screened for antibody against these agents to explore the extent of spread of these infections. A total of 516 serum samples were screened for the presence of antibodies against BT and PPR viruses. Of these, 155 samples were also tested for antibodies against sheep pox virus. BT antibodies were found in 293 (56.8%) animals, PPR virus antibodies in 215 (41.7%) and sheep pox virus antibodies in 106 (68.3%). Of the serum samples tested, 25.2% were positive for antibodies against all three viruses. These findings clearly demonstrated not only the enzootic nature of disease, but also the co-existence of antibodies to more than one of these viruses which would indicate that concurrent infections were common. Therefore, control measures should focus in combating all three diseases simultaneously by exploring the possibility of a trivalent vaccine or the use of multiple genes expressing vectored vaccine.

The efficiency of Peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRV) vaccines available in Pakistan was evaluated on the basis of the humoral immune response measured by haemagglutination inhibition (HI) and agar gel immunodiffusion (AGID) tests in sheep (n=60) and goats (n=60). The effect of storage temperature on HA activity of vaccine virus was measured by holding the vaccine at -20, 4, 27 and 40°C for 24 hours. The titer of freshly prepared vaccine was 1:16 and remained unchanged for 24 hours in the vaccines stored at -20 and 4°C. However, drop in titer (1:2 HA) was recorded in the vaccine kept at 40°C for 24 hours. The haemagglutination activity of PPR virus constituted in buffer with pH 6.8 and 7.0 was recorded as highest when assay was performed with chicken and human blood group'O' erythrocytes (1%). The lowest titer was recorded when vaccine was reconstituted in buffer at pH 8.0. After 14 th day post vaccination, there was a gradual increase in the antibody titer till 56 th day. Geometric mean titer (GMT) of antibodies against locally manufactured PPRV vaccine was higher (207.9) in comparison with Pestivec (73.3), a vaccine imported from Jordan at 63 rd day post vaccination in sheep; the corresponding values in goats were 147.0 and 48.5, respectively. All animals of control group were negative for antibodies by both of the diagnostic tests.