Evolution of Brain

As tools, digital photographs produce a mental event reshaping perception, generating a use-wear redescription of prehistoric people calculating shell net weight systems of at least ten grams. String is essential in making fishing nets with weights. We address how altered photographs can create false memories, and show that strategically reconfiguring digital shell images, in alignment with prehistoric tool use-wear studies, a better visual guide is introduced. This might explain associated precuneus brain evolution involved in bimanual processes, mathematical calculations, and spatial thinking, preceding by about 30,000 years the bow and arrow. As etched on the Blombos ochre stone, in figure 1, the net had to have a diamond shape to which a string of shells was attached, preventing shells from entangling. Digital editing, in figure 2,then helps us mirror the prehistoric cognitive style and visual grammar describing how the net would look in figure 3.

А novel type of a complex neuro-glandular brain structure including both nervous and glandular elements and associated with sensory ones is detected in Pyramicocephalus phocarum plerocercoid (Cestoda: Diphyllobothriidea), parasite of Gadus morua from the White Sea. The brain has two lateral lobes connected by a long cellular median commissure. The brain is tightly surrounded by glandular cells, which receive numerous synapses from the brain neurons. A complex of sensory organs associated with ducts and terminal pores of the frontal glands lies in the scolex tegument. Serotonin, FMRFamide-and GABA-like immunoreactive (IR) neurons are found in the brain, the main nerve cords, and the plexus of the plerocercoid. The innervation of the frontal gland ducts by FMRFamide-IR neurites is detected for the first time proving that they function under control of the nervous system and thus evidencing the eccrine nature of the secretion mechanism. Ultrastructural data show that light, dark and neurosecretory neurons are present in the brain lobes. The median commissure consists of loosely arranged thin parallel axons and several giant and small neurons. The commissure is stratified and penetrated by frontal glandular cells and their processes. Such neuro-glandular morpho-functional brain complex is suggested as a model for Diphyllobothriidae family. Five structural types of sensory organs are described in the scolex of P. phocarum; their colocalization with eccrine gland terminals is supposedly specific for Diphyllobothriidae family. Within the order Diphyllobothriidea, there are significant differences in the architecture of the plerocercoid brain at the family level. We suppose homology of giant commissural neurons among Diphyllobothriidea. Differences between diphyllobothriidean nervous system and that of other cestodes are discussed.

The brain is a complex organ that serves as the center of the nervous system. The brain exists in human, animals and trees, from microscopic size in viruses to the complex composition in human being. The brain is composed of the cerebrum, the brainstem and the cerebellum and followed by the spinal cord. This very specific organ is located inside the skull bones of the head. The shape and size of the brain varies greatly between species from more primitive ones to advanced brains. The purpose of this opinion is to focus on human brain and its disorders with exclusion of the spinal cord. The brain is the most protected organ. The cerebrum is divided into two cerebral hemispheres. Each hemisphere is conventionally divided into five lobes; named the frontal, temporal, parietal, insular and occipital lobes. A lobe is divides in circumvolution with small specific areas call aires. The left and right hemispheres are broadly similar anatomically but different in function such as language in the left and visual-spatial ability in the right. The two hemispheres are connected by commissural nerve tracts to share on time the same information and execute the body function together. The human brain contains approximately 70 billion neurons. Each neuron is constituted by body cellar and axon that connected by synapses to several thousand other neurons. The neuron or nerve cell is the functional unit of the brain. The nerve cell is the first electrical and excitable cell of the body. This electrical power is the base of specific signal pulse that helps neuron to be connected one to another from and to the brain in the entire body, to execute the human willing and desire. The function of the brain is lead by the neuron to exert centralized control over the other organs of the body. The neuron acts by controlling other body cells activities from mitosis to hormone secretion, excretion and clean wastes from the body and reinforce human defense system. The brain is the heart that centralized all functions by generating patterns of activity, integrating capabilities, and coordinated input and output of responses to adapt human behavior to the environment. Some basic types of responsiveness can be mediated by the spinal cord or peripheral ganglia, but sophisticated purposeful control of behavior based on complex sensory input and output requires the information integrating capabilities of a centralized brain. The brain functions concern movement control, sensory responsiveness, intelligence, memory, thought, and sleeping. Considerable details of neuron operating system are now well understood but great remain to be solved regarding some specific functions such as fetal development to birth, cognitive, behavior, environment adaptation and saving life. The neuron function, excitability and well being is depending on multiple factors among which we can list but not exhaustive, the nerve cell development and constitutional, brain protective system, blood circulation in arteries and veins, cerebrospinal fluid circulation, hormones and other secretion, other organ and system including immunity defense system. During centuries, there were evolution of sciences and history of neurosciences. From the ancient Egyptian practices to 21 st century, via Roman Empire and the renaissance period, there is evidence of neuroscience practice throughout periods of history. All these research period had conducted to identify the specialization of specific brain areas functions and neural plasticity by Paul Broca, Carl Wernicke and Korbinian Brodmann. With little known about nerve cell function in detail, great and big challenges and myths remain yet to be solved regarding the brain disorders. As much complex as the brain functions are, as difficult, multiple and varied are the brain disorders. The disorder occurs when there is damage or disruption to the brain. There are many risk factors leading to brain damage. These factors are developmental errors, birth period disturbances, polluted environmental, bad lifestyle, stressful life experiences, This work is licensed under Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License ANN.MS.ID.000529.

Öncelikle bu makaleyi bir ödev vesilesi ile yazmış olduğumu belirtmek istiyorum. Bu sebepten konunun derinliğine inmeden sadece yüzeysel bir makale yazmış bulunmaktayım. Makale konu hakkında ön bilgi sahibi olmak isteyenler için gayet uygun olacağını düşünüyorum. Makalede beynin nasıl evrimleştiği, neden sadece insan beynin diğer canlıların beyinlerinden daha üstün bir seviyeye evrimleştiği ve evrimi tetikleyen unsurların neler olduğu gibi daha birçok sorunun cevabını yüzeysel bir biçimde edineceksiniz.