Accounting and Audit

Intelligent agents can be used as agents of organizational change. This potential exists in the domain of accounting audit, where much of what is currently done manually in batch mode could be done continuously and on-line. We discuss the use of intelligent Internet agents as a way of changing and expanding audit practices in the virtual world. A quality/service framework is presented that suggests ways that accounting firms can evolve in this era of on-line opportunities. The EDGAR Agent is presented as an example of an intelligent Internet agent that gathers financial information. The challenges involved in the development of the EDGAR agent are analyzed, providing insight into the practical aspects of agent technology designed for a specific business domain. A test of the agent is presented, with comments and suggestions from financial practitioners that will be integrated into the research stream.

Abstract: - The accounting system in Romania is the result of a long process of settling the historical, political, economic and social aspects. During centralized economy (communist) up to the Revolution of December 1989, the accounting system was monist, accounting ...

International Financial Reporting Standards together with Public Sector Accounting Standards are based on professional reasoning by appealing to principles that can lead to several solutions for a certain problem. In this respect Romanian economic mechanisms have a high level of rigidity in the implementation of accounting concepts and principles so that it is important to highlight the aspects that generate

International Financial Reporting Standards together with Public Sector Accounting Standards are based on professional reasoning by appealing to principles that can lead to several solutions for a certain problem. In this respect Romanian economic mechanisms have a high level of rigidity in the implementation of accounting concepts and principles so that it is important to highlight the aspects that generate

The report of United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) regarding the progress made in achieving the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) by Punjab, Pakistan claimed that the province veered in its journey to achieve the universal primary education targets. Past evidence showed that the shortage of funds was one among several reasons due to which school education targets of MDGs were not met. Countries all over the world have now signed up for another set of comprehensive Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), which need to be achieved by 2030. At present, in Punjab, no attempt has been made to meet the targets set by SDGs. This study attempted to determine how much public spending is required to meet a subset of basic education goals, namely the completion of high-quality pre-primary, primary, and lower secondary education. This study only evaluated public spending on school education in Punjab. For this purpose, data was taken for the period 2008-2019. Based on the results, we mus...

The normative reference for accounting is, in Europe, the 4th Directive on the annual accounts of certain type of companies (78/660/EEC), issued in 1978 and revised in 2003 and 2006 (2006/46/EC). For Romania, integration to the European Union implies the

This study examines the connection between employees' HR perceptions and organizational commitment. In addition, the study also investigates a mediating role of job satisfaction and observed organizational support in the relationship between employees' HR perception and organizational commitment. The researchers gathered primary data through a survey questionnaire. The employees of the commercial banks are the unit of analysis whereas, the total sample size understudy was 300. The exogenous variable is employee HR perception, and the endogenous variable is organizational commitment. Moreover, job satisfaction and perceived organizational support are the mediators of this study. Descriptive analysis (mean and standard deviation) and inferential statistical techniques (reliability, correlation and regression analysis) were used for data analysis. Empirical findings show a significant impact of employee HR perception on organizational commitment. In addition, job satisfaction &...

The issue of international accounting harmonization has achieved, mainly within the last decade, a significant dimension in the field of international accounting research. The main determinant factor for this state of the art is the process aiming at redu

The approach of the Romanian public accounting change is determined mainly by the EU accession process, namely the need for convergence with the accounting system specific economic entities. Assessing the need for harmonization and convergence in the accounts of public institutions - giving rise to increasing valence information, management and vital decision-making to raise awareness of institution cost structure and their characteristics - is the focus of our study. Need of accession of all accounting systems to a common system is a process which is done through the international accounting standardization and will ultimately allow overcoming obstacles in terms of international comparisons.

This paper is addressing to the issues of the existence of some options in choosing accounting policies and techniques. We proposed ourselves to establish to what extent the choices made in meeting the financial accounting function of the enterprise are free and how the options of those who prepare the annual accounts of economic entities are limited. To achieve this goal we considered necessary to study the regulations, the rules applicable to the area of the accounting of the economic entities. The work will respond to two questions: 1. What is the content of the set of financial statements and who must report (where they make)? and 2. Assess how the structures of assets, liabilities, equity, expenses, income, etc. the financial statements? The ultimate objective of this work is to provide specialist financial and accounting opinion documented to support the decisions that it should adopt in the exercise of his powers.

The primary objective of accounting is to provide information in order to ensure a fair, clear and full image of heritage, financial position and results of the entity, to all interested parties, ensuring "transparency" of accounting information to all the interested people. This objective can be achieved by periodic preparation of summary documents and accountin reporting, which over time have worn different names such as balance sheet, annual financial statements or annual accounts. Starting from this consideration, in this paper we proposed to approach in terms of theoretical importance, the role and principles of the annual financial statements with new accounting regulations in accordance with EU Directives.

The article discusses current issues of transformation of accounting information in accordance with international financial reporting standards (IFRS). This study is primarily aimed at developing approaches that determine the need for Russian enterprises to provide accounting information comparable at the international level. The authors analyze methods of transferring data from the Russian Accounting Standard (RAS) to IFRS. The methods used to form financial statements in accordance with IFRS are discussed. The issues of the application of these methods, as well as their advantages and disadvantages, are discussed. The author's approach to the selection of the optimal method of transformation is proposed taking into account the individual needs of organizations.

Accounting globalization follows the transformation of the accounting system into an economic and financial model, able to inform more correctly and rapidly the users of the accounting information, amongst which the investors and the creditors are clearly delimited. Within this context, the need of a harmonized and well oriented accounting system has become imperative. The adoption of a set of international accounting standards in Europe is intended to provide uniform and high quality financial information on the financial markets which would consolidate the global market efficiency, reducing the cost of capital accessing for European companies. There are numerous opinions according to which the IFRS adoption could be an element of abolishing the discrepancies between the accounting systems, offering at the same time a high level of transparency of the financial information. Our objective is to analyze the opportunity of implementing the IAS/IFRS referential by the Romanian companie...

Our paper borrows from pathophysiology the concept of thanatogenesis and applies it to accounting concepts and practices. We define accounting thanatogenesis as the study of the causes and processes that lead to the disappearance of an accounting concept or practice. We choose a number of concepts and practices and we survey the opinions of academics teaching in a Bucharest university. Similarly to the clinical indices used by physicians to monitor the evolution of a patient, accounting thanatogenesis indices represent rates of rejection of concepts and practices, as measured by surveys of accountants. The ideological influence of IAS/IFRS is assumed to modify the opinions of the respondents that have been exposed to a decade of harmonisation with both European Accounting Directives and IAS/IFRS.

This paper is addressing to the issues of the existence of some options in choosing accounting policies and techniques. We proposed ourselves to establish to what extent the choices made in meeting the financial accounting function of the enterprise are free and how the options of those who prepare the annual accounts of economic entities are limited. To achieve this goal we considered necessary to study the regulations, the rules applicable to the area of the accounting of the economic entities. The work will respond to two questions: 1. What is the content of the set of financial statements and who must report (where they make)? and 2. Assess how the structures of assets, liabilities, equity, expenses, income, etc. the financial statements? The ultimate objective of this work is to provide specialist financial and accounting opinion documented to support the decisions that it should adopt in the exercise of his powers.

Typically ‘income tax ’ laws rely on financial accounting data to determine the taxable income of a business entity, although financial and tax accounting have different goals and requirements. The purpose of this paper is to explore the relationship between financial and tax accounting rules in Albania. The study employs a mixed methodology, comprising a review of the legislation, institutional framework and context, and semi-structured interviews with accountants, academics and institutional players. By reviewing the development of this relationship during the past 20 years, we aim to identify and explain the major divergences at present between two sets of rules.

In the context of globalization, where traditional borders of trade have been increasingly cast aside, the accounting information users are met with difficulties in reaching their individual interests in relation to a given economic entity, as a result of the use of more than one financial reporting system. The development of the International Financial Reporting Standards and its various degrees of adoption seeks to create a unique common language for economic activities, which would be unanimously recognized by users regardless of their multi cultural background. The present paper shows that this effort is far from being complete as the transition from traditional reporting standards to IFRS has a number of consequences on the form of the accounting information, and thus on the way it is perceived by the each individual user.

Accounting globalization aims the transformation of the accounting system into an economic and financial model, able to inform more correctly and rapidly the accounting information users, amongst which the investors and the creditors are clearly delimited. Within this context, the need of a harmonized and well oriented accounting system has become imperative. The adoption of a set of international accounting standards in Europe is intended to provide uniform and high quality information on the financial markets which would consolidate the global market efficiency, reducing the cost of capital accessing for European companies. There are numerous opinions according to which the IFRS adoption could be an element of abolishing the discrepancies between the accounting systems, at the same time offering a high level of transparency of the financial information. Our objective is to analyze the opportunity of implementing the IAS/IFRS referential by the Romanian companies, as well as their ...

It is valuable to take note that the majority of financial reporting pundits are in agreement that the financial reporting system of a country depends on several factors that include the legal, economic, and cultural background; The development of tasks performed by accounting is persistently inspired by needs of practice. It is clear of that accounting schemes play an essential role in the market economy, particularly in face of globalization of capital markets, where increasing need for comparable, transparent financial statements for the companies. Rather, it is proposed to present information that is used in making reasoned options amongst alternative uses of limited resources in the conduct of business and economic activities. The present paper discusses the possibilities to improve the accounting policies and procedures in Jordan and other Middle East countries in accordance with commitment of the International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS). Throughout this study we used a qualitative approach, to outline an overview of the history of financial reporting and its evolution from the origin, to the growth and development of accounting systems by studying a considerable amount of bibliographic material, using different textbooks and journals on accounting theories but also public information presented by the accounting organisations and the government of the two analysed countries. Furthermore, the paper reviewed the achievements made in the convergence of International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS), in the Middle East countries, in Jordanian context and in the European Union, specifically the case of Romania. International financial reporting standard (IFRS) implementation in Jordan has departed through several transitional phases wile in our previous work we noticed that Romania can be considered a benchmark of high degree convergence to IFRS.

Technologies of Artificial Intelligence (AI) are critical for future of the auditing profession. These technologies are actually vital tools that provide the auditing professionals with the means necessary for increasing the effectiveness and efficiency of their jobs. The aim of this study was to examine the effect of artificial intelligence technologies on audit evidence, from the point of view of certified auditors in information technology (IT) companies in Jordan. Descriptive research design was adopted in the study among 314 auditors. Structured questionnaire was used to obtain the information needed for the study. The findings of the study showed that expert system had a significant effect on the audit evidence. Neural network technology did not provide any significant effect on the audit evidence. The study recommended increased interest in artificial intelligence technologies by audit offices operating in Jordan because of its scientific importance in improving the collectio...

The consolidation of financial information is an important aspect to be taken into consideration by financial directors and politicians in the decision making process. Furthermore than a precious management tool for politicians and technicians, the consolidation of financial information also contributes towards strengthening the transparency of information, for citizens as well as for other interested organizations. Consolidation produces a single set of financial statements-Balance and Income Statements-as well as the budgetary control sheet of the Public Groups' revenue and expense, as if this was a single entity. The main idea that will be developed in this paper is based on the standards established by the Charter of Accounts for the Education Sector (CA-Education), as well as a study carried out within the scope of the consolidated accounts in some Portuguese public universities.

Intelligent agents can be used as agents of organizational change. This potential exists in the domain of accounting audit, where much of what is currently done manually in batch mode could be done continuously and on-line. We discuss the use of intelligent Internet agents as a way of changing and expanding audit practices in the virtual world. A quality/service framework is presented that suggests ways that accounting firms can evolve in this era of on-line opportunities. The EDGAR Agent is presented as an example of an intelligent Internet agent that gathers financial information. The challenges involved in the development of the EDGAR agent are analyzed, providing insight into the practical aspects of agent technology designed for a specific business domain. A test of the agent is presented, with comments and suggestions from financial practitioners that will be integrated into the research stream.

There is an enormous literature relating to the true and fair view (hereafter TFV). We are concerned with how the concept is actually perceived by various actors in an emerging economy which has only recently joined the European Union, i.e. Romania. Romania has a code law system with an obvious preference for the legal form. Two main steps have been taken for the purpose of our study. First, textual analysis of all accounting regulations has been performed with respect to the provisions regarding the TFV concept. Second, nine in-depth semi-structured interviews have been conducted with top representatives of the Romanian regulator, preparers, auditors and professional bodies. The perception on TFV depends firstly on the category: for auditors, this is a guide or a vital concept, closely related to substance over form, relevance and usefulness for users, while for regulators and preparers, TFV is primarily compliance with the rules.

Accounting globalization aims the transformation of the accounting system into an economic and financial model, able to inform more correctly and rapidly the accounting information users, amongst which the investors and the creditors are clearly delimited. Within this context, the need of a harmonized and well oriented accounting system has become imperative. The adoption of a set of international accounting standards in Europe is intended to provide uniform and high quality information on the financial markets which would consolidate the global market efficiency, reducing the cost of capital accessing for European companies. There are numerous opinions according to which the IFRS adoption could be an element of abolishing the discrepancies between the accounting systems, at the same time offering a high level of transparency of the financial information. Our objective is to analyze the opportunity of implementing the IAS/IFRS referential by the Romanian companies, as well as their ...

Abstract: - The accounting system in Romania is the result of a long process of settling the historical, political, economic and social aspects. During centralized economy (communist) up to the Revolution of December 1989, the accounting system was monist, accounting ...

The normative reference for accounting is, in Europe, the 4th Directive on the annual accounts of certain type of companies (78/660/EEC), issued in 1978 and revised in 2003 and 2006 (2006/46/EC). For Romania, integration to the European Union implies the

The relationship between accounting and taxation in has experienced a rapid and dramatic evolution since 1990. In 20 years, Romania passed through evolutions that required several decades in developed countries. In a very partial analysis of this development we choose to identify tax effects of accounting rule of substance over form. The starting point of our research is the Romanian accounting standards, which list some implications of the substance over form rule. We note that, as expected, the tax rule does not overlap exactly on the accounting rule. In this context, we insist on some cases: lease-back agreements, the recognition of sales of goods. In these developments, we should note that, sometimes, there are different fiscal and accounting solutions, sometimes solutions are identical.

Our paper borrows from pathophysiology the concept of thanatogenesis and applies it to accounting concepts and practices. We define accounting thanatogenesis as the study of the causes and processes that lead to the disappearance of an accounting concept or practice. We choose a number of concepts and practices and we survey the opinions of academics teaching in a Bucharest university. Similarly to the clinical indices used by physicians to monitor the evolution of a patient, accounting thanatogenesis indices represent rates of rejection of concepts and practices, as measured by surveys of accountants. The ideological influence of IAS/IFRS is assumed to modify the opinions of the respondents that have been exposed to a decade of harmonisation with both European Accounting Directives and IAS/IFRS.

This research is intended to supplement comparative national studies, which represent a challenge to accounting history for the last decades, explaining the Romanian public accounting practices in their local and time-specific context, taking into question the case of the entities owned by the government. In essence, the findings show the materialization of accrual accounting benefits for Romania as an emerging economy in terms of all independent variables used in the study: fixed assets, liabilities, revenues and costs. The article also analyzes the gradual evolution of finding the advantages of the Romanian accounting system's transition from a cash basis to an accrual basis in the two analyzed stages, the transition and postreform periods. It proves thus the correlation between the pace of regulatory changes and their application in practice, indirectly confirming the orientation of the Romanian standard-setters towards IPSAS and accrual accounting. Moreover, this research is an argument for the importance of accounting and of the economic analysis, which the study can support through proper financial reporting.

Our paper borrows from pathophysiology the concept of thanatogenesis and applies it to accounting concepts and practices. We define accounting thanatogenesis as the study of the causes and processes that lead to the disappearance of an accounting concept or practice. We choose a number of concepts and practices and we survey the opinions of academics teaching in a Bucharest university. Similarly to the clinical indices used by physicians to monitor the evolution of a patient, accounting thanatogenesis indices represent rates of rejection of concepts and practices, as measured by surveys of accountants. The ideological influence of IAS/IFRS is assumed to modify the opinions of the respondents that have been exposed to a decade of harmonisation with both European Accounting Directives and IAS/IFRS.

The conformity of the Romanian accounting system to the European and international accounting rules also implies the accounting policies as a crucial element in the development and presentation of financial statements, which must include relevant and reliable information in condition to meet the needs of various user groups in decision making. Accounting policies are circumscribed to the primary objective of accounting, that of providing a fair image of financial position and performance of reporting entities. This paper intends to approach accounting policies in relation to national and international regulatory framework, the desirable way in which they should be present in public institutions in our country, the reality regarding the incorporation in the financial statements of accounting policies applied to local territorial administrative units, the identification of convergences and differences in the perception and practical implementation of normative theoretical framework regarding "principles, conventions, rules and practices applied by an entity in preparing and presenting financial statements".

The approach of the Romanian public accounting change is determined mainly by the EU accession process, namely the need for convergence with the accounting system specific economic entities. Assessing the need for harmonization and convergence in the accounts of public institutions - giving rise to increasing valence information, management and vital decision-making to raise awareness of institution cost structure and their characteristics - is the focus of our study. Need of accession of all accounting systems to a common system is a process which is done through the international accounting standardization and will ultimately allow overcoming obstacles in terms of international comparisons.

Abstract: Like the rest of the countries, Algeria carried out an accounting reform process by issuing a financial accounting system inspired by international accounting standards IAS/IFRS as an aspect of accounting globalization. However, the accounting reform came in special circumstances and it requires the intervention of many parties if it’s to be successful. Therefore, this study aims to evaluate the efficiency of the accounting reform process in Algeria after more than 10 years of application through a field study in 36 Wilayas across the country, a questionnaire was submitted to a sample consisting of 123 participants related to a group of accounting professionals. After analyzing the recovered data with the statistical package for the social sciences program SPSS 26, and based on interviewing highly qualified professional experts in the field of accounting in Algeria, the study concluded that the accounting reform in Algeria is still suffering from many shortcomings that must be resolved as soon as possible. The study also recommends a roadmap for an efficient accounting reform process that meets the needs of Algerian enterprises. Keywords: Accounting Reform, Accounting Practice, International Accounting Standard, Financial Accounting System. JEL Classification: H83, M41, Q56. الملخص: كغيرها من الدول، قامت الجزائر بعملية إصلاح محاسبي من خلال إصدار نظام محاسبي مالي مستوحى من المعايير المحاسبية الدولية IAS/IFRS كوجه من أوجه العولمة المحاسبية. إلا أن عملية الإصلاح المحاسبي جاءت في ظروف خاصة إضافة إلى أنها تتطلب تدخل العديد من الأطراف في سبيل إنجاح العملية. ولهذا، فإن هذه الدراسة تهدف إلى محاولة تقييم نجاعة عملية الإصلاح المحاسبي في الجزائر بعد أكثر من 10 سنوات من التطبيق من خلال دراسة ميدانية عبر 36 ولاية من الوطن، ولقد تم توزيع إستبانة لعينة مكونة من 123 مشاركا من المتخصصين في مجال المحاسبة. وبعد تحليل البيانات المسترجعة بواسطة برنامج الحزم الإحصائية لميدان العلوم الإجتماعية SPSS 26، وبعد القيام بمقابلة علمية مع مجموعة من الخبراء عالي المستوى في ميدان المحاسبة في الجزائر، توصلت الدراسة إلى أن عملية الإصلاح المحاسبي في الجزائر لا تزال تعاني من مجموعة من النقائص التي يجب حلها في القريب العاجل، كما أن الدراسة إقترحت خارطة طريق للقيام بعملية إصلاح محاسبي ناجعة من شأنها تلبية إحتياجات المؤسسات الجزائرية. الكلمات المفتاحية: إصلاح محاسبي، ممارسة محاسبية، معيار محاسبي دولي، نظام محاسبي مالي. تصنيف JEL: H83، M41، G56. Abstracto: Al igual que el resto de los países, Argelia llevó a cabo un proceso de reforma contable mediante la emisión de un sistema de contabilidad financiera inspirado en las normas contables internacionales IAS/IFRS como un aspecto de la globalización contable. Sin embargo, la reforma contable llegó en circunstancias especiales y requiere la intervención de muchas partes para que tenga éxito. Por lo tanto, este estudio tiene como objetivo evaluar la eficiencia del proceso de reforma contable en Argelia después de más de 10 años de aplicación a través de un estudio de campo en 36 Wilayas de todo el país, se envió un cuestionario a una muestra compuesta por 123 participantes relacionados con un grupo de profesionales de la contabilidad. Tras analizar los datos recuperados con el paquete estadístico para el programa de ciencias sociales SPSS 26, y en base a entrevistas a expertos profesionales altamente cualificados en el campo de la contabilidad en Argelia, el estudio concluyó que la reforma contable en Argelia todavía adolece de muchas deficiencias que deben se resuelva lo antes posible. El estudio también recomienda una hoja de ruta para un proceso de reforma contable eficiente que satisfaga las necesidades de las empresas argelinas. Palabras clave: Reforma Contable, Práctica Contable, Norma Internacional de Contabilidad, Sistema de Contabilidad Financiera. Clasificación JEL: H83, M41, Q56. Résumé: Comme d'autres pays, l'Algérie a mené un processus de réforme comptable en décrétant un système comptable financier inspiré des normes comptables internationales IAS/IFRS dans le cadre de la mondialisation comptable. Cependant, le processus de réforme comptable est venu dans des circonstances particulières et nécessite l'intervention de plusieurs parties pour le succès du processus. Par conséquent, cette étude concerne à essayer d'évaluer l'efficacité du processus de la réforme comptable en Algérie après plus de 10 ans d'application à travers une étude empirique à travers 36 Wilayas du pays, un questionnaire a été distribué à un échantillon de 123 participants parmi des spécialistes en comptabilité. Après avoir analysé les données récupérées au moyen du programme de paquets statistiques pour le domaine des sciences sociales SPSS 26, et après avoir mené un entretien scientifique avec un groupe d'experts de haut niveau dans le domaine de la comptabilité en Algérie, l'étude a conclu que la réforme comptable en Algérie souffre d'un ensemble des déficiences qui doivent être résolues dans le plus tôt possible, l'étude a également proposé une feuille de route pour un processus efficace de réforme comptable qui répondrait aux besoins des entreprises algériennes. Mots clés : Réforme Comptable, Pratique Comptable, Norme Comptable Internationale, Système Comptable Financier. Classement JEL : H83, M41, Q56.

Considering the actions and decisions of different actors involved in the accounting process and the research opportunities, we may say that we definitely live in interesting times. It is argued that the need for accounting harmonization is an effect of the globalisation process. On the other hand, it is also argued that accounting is subjective at both philosophical and policy levels, and mutually interactive with the environment within which it operates. Consequently, international accounting harmonization is not only a very topical issue, but also a very rich one, needing immediate and long-term attention and consideration from different perspectives.

According to the current regulations, the valuation aims several moments, namely: the input date (when the element enters the patrimony), the inventory date, the date of the financial year's ending and, not at last, the output date (when the element leaves the patrimony). The present paper focuses on the financial year's ending valuation moment. The valuation is one of the most up-to-date accounting issues. Choosing the valuation basis actually involves establishing the moment for registering into the balance sheet the element value, namely: the past-the input value, the present-current value, the future-present value.

The purpose of this study is to analyze whether Greece, by complying with International Financial Reporting Standards, has been reached the desirable harmonization, in what degree and discusses the related subject problems that have been arisen. The surveyed data are selected from, Greek listed companies in Athens stock exchange. The H index, a measure of the degree of concentration for the adoption of specific accounting practices, is calculated over the 3-year period. The results show that across 3-year period H index were positive and statistical significant so the disclosure quality is significant increased under IFRS/IAS adoption. It also puts forward the view that harmony should reflect properly the different circumstances under firms operate toward maturity and normalization.

The consolidation of financial information is an important aspect to be taken into consideration by financial directors and politicians in the decision making process. Furthermore than a precious management tool for politicians and technicians, the consolidation of financial information also contributes towards strengthening the transparency of information, for citizens as well as for other interested organizations. Consolidation produces a single set of financial statements – Balance and Income Statements- as well as the budgetary control sheet of the Public Groups ’ revenue and expense, as if this was a single entity. The main idea that will be developed in this paper is based on the standards established by the Charter of Accounts for the Education Sector (CA-Education), as well as a study carried out within the scope of the consolidated accounts in some Portuguese public universities.

The approach of the Romanian public accounting change is determined mainly by the EU accession process, namely the need for convergence with the accounting system specific economic entities. Assessing the need for harmonization and convergence in the accounts of public institutions - giving rise to increasing valence information, management and vital decision-making to raise awareness of institution cost structure and their characteristics - is the focus of our study. Need of accession of all accounting systems to a common system is a process which is done through the international accounting standardization and will ultimately allow overcoming obstacles in terms of international comparisons.

The accounting rules from each country evolve in time in order to respond the social, cultural and economical environment needs. After some communist countries (as Romania, Bulgaria, Poland, Hungary, Czech Republic, Slovenia, Estonia, Lithuania, s.o.) joined the European Union an important number of local companies became to apply accounting regulation according with International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS). This paper surveys

In this paper we look at accountants as “consumers of accounting regulations”. We explain the change in the accountants’ attitude towards flexibility in the accounting regulation process, using a theory derived from social psychology: the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA). In 1999 and 2005 we tested the attitude towards flexibility of a number of Romanian accountants who aimed at becoming private practitioners. We observed that before the existence of an accounting conceptual framework (1999), the accountants surveyed preferred flexibility with respect to accounting choices. A few years later (2005), after the implementation of IASB’s conceptual framework (but before the regulator removed it), the preference of accountants changed to flexibility. We believe that these changes could be explained using TRA.

In the recent years the normalization process has gained a profound international aspect by converging national regulations and standards and standardizing them for a better preparation of accounting financial statements.  This process is determined by the evolution of European’s Union and world economy characterized by interdependence of national economies by developing a so called “network capitalism”. In the context of monetary fiscal and political union within the EU, a supranational perspective can be foreseen regarding the capital market, production processes, with more and more integrated markets and economic entities which became global players with actions and decisions which overcome national borders. The process of globalization represents both certitude and a challenge for everyone. Normalization and convergence of accounting represents a progress towards economic growth, trough supporting global markets and attracting and retaining capital within companies.

There is an enormous literature relating to the true and fair view (hereafter TFV). We are concerned with how the concept is actually perceived by various actors in an emerging economy which has only recently joined the European Union, i.e. Romania. Romania has a code law system with an obvious preference for the legal form. Two main steps have been taken for the purpose of our study. First, textual analysis of all accounting regulations has been performed with respect to the provisions regarding the TFV concept. Second, nine in-depth semi-structured interviews have been conducted with top representatives of the Romanian regulator, preparers, auditors and professional bodies. The perception on TFV depends firstly on the category: for auditors, this is a guide or a vital concept, closely related to substance over form, relevance and usefulness for users, while for regulators and preparers, TFV is primarily compliance with the rules.

Purpose-This study aims to investigate in-depth, and explain the issues related to, the implementation of IAS/IFRS in an emergent country that recently adhered to the European Union, i.e. Romania. Design/methodology/approach-An institutional and structuration theory perspective is used to discuss two stages of IAS/IFRS implementation in Romania. Both primary (11 in-depth semi-structured interviews conducted with key actors involved in financial reporting) and secondary data (accounting regulations after the fall of communism, with respect to the implementation of IAS/ IFRS) were collected for the purpose of the paper. Findings-It was found that the two stages of IAS/IFRS implementation had different outcomes, with a more profound and qualitative impact of the second phase. The first step was a result of coercive external forces, that is, the influence of the World Bank. Given the lack of other factors to favor the change process, it is argued that the actual implementation of IAS in that period was very limited. Even though the second step meant a reduction in scope to only listed companies in consolidated accounts and financial institutions, it is argued that it was accompanied by a change process more significant than in the previous period. Originality/value-The paper investigates the interplay between institutions, routines and politics in the Romanian context and highlights the complexity of accounting change in an emerging country.

Considering the actions and decisions of different actors involved in the accounting process and the research opportunities, we may say that we definitely live in interesting times. It is argued that the need for accounting harmonization is an effect of the globalisation process. On the other hand, it is also argued that accounting is subjective at both philosophical and policy levels, and mutually interactive with the environment within which it operates. Consequently, international accounting harmonization is not only a very topical issue, but also a very rich one, needing immediate and long-term attention and consideration from different perspectives. Accounting is influenced by different factors. For example, at a regulatory level, we have in the European Union, besides the national regulators, three forces to consider: the IASB, the FASB, and the European Union. Accounting, especially the accounting regulations, is also influenced by other entities such as the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, Big Four or multinationals (Annisette, 2004; Brown, 2004). On the other hand, the national characteristics, represented by each country's accounting culture and traditions developed over time in close relationship with the political, social and economical environment of each of them, inevitably influence each country's accounting practices. Factors such as the role of the State, the type of legal system, the providers of finance, the relationship between accounting and taxation, the culture, the role of the accounting profession significantly influence accounting practices (Alexander et al., 2006; Nobes & Parker, 2008). In this complex landscape, Alexander (2010) made the following invitation: "If everybody thinks the same way, with, broadly speaking, a common culture, and all users of financial information have, broadly speaking, the same informational needs, then global accounting harmonization will work. Otherwise, it won't. You

Purpose-This study aims to investigate in-depth, and explain the issues related to, the implementation of IAS/IFRS in an emergent country that recently adhered to the European Union, i.e. Romania. Design/methodology/approach-An institutional and structuration theory perspective is used to discuss two stages of IAS/IFRS implementation in Romania. Both primary (11 in-depth semi-structured interviews conducted with key actors involved in financial reporting) and secondary data (accounting regulations after the fall of communism, with respect to the implementation of IAS/ IFRS) were collected for the purpose of the paper. Findings-It was found that the two stages of IAS/IFRS implementation had different outcomes, with a more profound and qualitative impact of the second phase. The first step was a result of coercive external forces, that is, the influence of the World Bank. Given the lack of other factors to favor the change process, it is argued that the actual implementation of IAS in that period was very limited. Even though the second step meant a reduction in scope to only listed companies in consolidated accounts and financial institutions, it is argued that it was accompanied by a change process more significant than in the previous period. Originality/value-The paper investigates the interplay between institutions, routines and politics in the Romanian context and highlights the complexity of accounting change in an emerging country.

FRAMEWORK. MAIN FACTORS OF INFLUENCE M Ma an nd di il la as s A At th ha an na as si io os s 1 1 A At th hi ia an no os s S St te er rg gi io os s 2 2 T Ts sa am mi is s A An na as st ta as si io os s 3 3 A As sl la an ni i S So of fi ia a 4 4

Switching from an accounting system based on compliance and enforcement of strict rules, to a system where the professional judgement plays a key role in the accounting recognition of assets and their disclosure can be a difficult exercise. Throughout history, Romania has moved through a winding path, from the standpoint of accounting judgement. Although there have been attempts of early normalization at the beginning of the twentieth century, that led to the literature addressing some aspects of assets recognition and classification, both form a legal and economic perspective, they have never been implemented (Calu, 2005). By the middle of the twentieth century, the accounting system was a Soviet-inspired one, where practitioners were required to apply “recipes” for asset recognition and disclosure, enforced on a national scale, thus rendering the professional judgement useless. Beginning with 1989, most accounting treatments were still predefined, but certain transactions and even...

Intelligent agents can be used as agents of organizational change. This potential exists in the domain of accounting audit, where much of what is currently done manually in batch mode could be done continuously and on-line. We discuss the use of intelligent Internet agents as a way of changing and expanding audit practices in the virtual world. A quality/service framework is presented that suggests ways that accounting firms can evolve in this era of on-line opportunities. The EDGAR Agent is presented as an example of an intelligent Internet agent that gathers financial information. The challenges involved in the development of the EDGAR agent are analyzed, providing insight into the practical aspects of agent technology designed for a specific business domain. A test of the agent is presented, with comments and suggestions from financial practitioners that will be integrated into the research stream.