WO2025117924A1

WO2025117924A1 - Systems and methods for electro-hydro water treatment

Info

Publication number: WO2025117924A1
Application number: PCT/US2024/058010
Authority: WO
Inventors: Kevin Gast; Marx JORDAAN; Frans DU BRUYN
Original assignee: Vvater Holdings Inc
Current assignee: Vvater Holdings Inc
Priority date: 2023-11-30
Filing date: 2024-11-30
Publication date: 2025-06-05
Anticipated expiration: 2026-05-30
Also published as: WO2025117923A1

Abstract

Provided here are methods and systems for electro-hydro water treatment. An example electro-hydro reactor includes at least one tank containing at least one electrode stack electrically connected to a power source. The power source is configured to electrify the at least one electrode stack, and the electro-hydro reactor is configured to receive and flow a source water stream through the at least one tank to contact the at least one electrified electrode stack, yielding an electrotreated water stream having a decreased amount of one or more components relative to the source water stream. The one or more components may include biological matter, organic matter, inorganic matter, or any combination thereof. The one or more components may be modified within the electro-hydro reactor by electroporation, pummeling, oxidation, reduction, or any combination thereof.

Description

SYSTEMS AND METHODS FOR ELECTRO-HYDRO WATER TREATMENT

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

[0001] This application claims priority to and the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 63/604,720, filed on November 30, 2023. The contents of the referenced application are incorporated into the present application by reference.

TECHNICAL FIELD

[0002] The present disclosure generally relates to systems and methods for the treatment, manipulation, and purification of water. More specifically, the present disclosure relates to systems and methods for the treatment and purification of water involving one or more of electro-hydro treatment, dissolved air floatation treatment, oxidation treatment, and polishing treatment. In addition to treating microbials via electroporation, the electro-hydro treatment conditions also facilitate the generation of chemical radicals that enable selective redox (oxidation and/or reduction) of various contaminants, such as chemical contaminants and dissolved metal contaminants, to facilitate the removal of such contaminants.

BACKGROUND

[0003] Industrial and commercial water treatment and municipal water and waste treatment are used to treat and purify non-optimal and other water to remove undesired components. These undesired and considered components may include biological matter, organic matter, and inorganic matter, such as sewage, paper waste, plastic waste, reagents, products, byproducts, metals, odor, taste, and so forth. Water treatment typically operates under guidelines that are established by local and regional regulations. For example, based on these regulations, certain water treatments are designed to remove a sufficient quantity of one or more undesired components from the water before the treated water is disposed or used as a water source for a given industrial, commercial, potable, or municipal application. However, typical water treatment operations require a substantial quantity of consumables, such as various reagents and membranes, which must be regularly restocked or replaced. Additionally, typical water treatment facilities require bulky equipment that is typically housed within large structures. This results in large capital investment costs and limits locations in which the facilities can be constructed and operated. Moreover, water treatment facilities are typically designed to manage water sources having a particular set of contaminants, and as such, these facilities generally lack the flexibility for their design or operation to be readily modified to accommodate water sources having different contaminants or different contaminant levels.

SUMMARY

[0004] With the foregoing in mind, Applicant has developed novel systems and methods for water treatment that address the aforementioned deficiencies of water treatment. More specifically, Applicant has developed systems and methods for water treatment that enable effective water treatment without requiring the use of consumable chemical disinfectants, such as chlorine or chlorine-based disinfectants (for example, sodium hypochlorite, calcium hypochlorite, chloramine) or other halogen-based disinfectants (for example, sodium bromide). Additionally, the systems and methods for water treatment described herein enable effective water treatment without requiring the use of membranes (for example, microfiltration membranes, ultrafiltration membranes, reverse-osmosis membranes, nanofiltration membranes). Furthermore, the design and operational parameters of the water treatment train described herein may be readily modified to accommodate water sources having various types and levels of contaminants.

[0005] In contrast to existing water treatment systems, the primary consumables for the systems and methods described herein are electricity and oxygen (from the air). Applicant recognized that the disclosed systems can be used to provide effective water treatment without having to order, ship, stock, store, and/or replace consumable chemical disinfectants or expensive membranes. Among other things, Applicant recognized that these systems enable water treatment facilities to be deployed at locations in which such deliveries are difficult, expensive, or impermissible. By avoiding the use of consumable chemical disinfectants, present the methods and systems disclosed herein also avoid potential health and safety concerns about such disinfectants, as well as their potential byproducts, which may remain in water purified using other treatment techniques. Applicant further recognized that, in addition to membrane-based techniques that require the use of expensive membranes that must be regularly inspected and replaced, such techniques are also slow to produce purified water. As such, to meet water demands, membrane-based water purification systems are typically scaled up, resulting in large, complex facilities that are difficult to construct, operate, and maintain. In contrast, the systems described herein can still operate effectively to treat hundreds to thousands of gallons of raw feedstock water per day, even when implemented in a small footprint that operates within the volume of a trailer of a tractortrailer rig or installed as static units. As such, the systems and methods described herein enable effective water treatment of different raw feedstock water sources (for example, municipal wastewater, industrial wastewater or process water, agricultural wastewater, produced water from oil and gas operations) without requiring the use of chemical disinfectants or membranes and without requiring large structures or facilities.

[0006] Embodiments discussed herein include systems and methods for performing water treatment. One such system is an electro-hydro reactor. The electro-hydro reactor includes at least one tank containing at least one electrode stack electrically connected to a power source. The power source is configured to electrify the at least one electrode stack, and the electro-hydro reactor is configured to receive and flow a source water stream through the at least one tank to contact the at least one electrified electrode stack, yielding an electrotreated water stream having a decreased amount of one or more components relative to the source water stream.

[0007] In some embodiments, the one or more components include biological matter, organic matter, inorganic matter, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the one or more components are modified within the electro-hydro reactor by electroporation, pummeling, oxidation, reduction, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the at least one electrode stack is configured to be electrified using alternating current (AC) electrical power, direct current (DC) electrical power, or pulsed DC electrical power. In some embodiments, the at least one electrode stack is configured to be electrified with electrical power having a voltage ranging from about 1 volt (V) to about 480 V. In some embodiments, the voltage ranges from about 6 V to about 12 V. In some embodiments, the electrode stack is configured to be electrified with electrical power having a current density ranging from about 600 milliamps per square centimeter (mA/cm²) to about 18,000 mA/cm². In some embodiments, the electrode stack is configured to be electrified with AC electrical power at a frequency from about 0.5 hertz (Hz) to about 15 kilohertz (KHz). In some embodiments, the electrode stack is electrically connected to a power transformer. The power transformer is electrically connected to a variable frequency drive, and the variable frequency drive is electrically connected to the power source.

[0008] In some embodiments, an electrode of the electrode stack contains copper, copper alloy, iron, iron alloy, steel, steel alloy, aluminum alloy, stainless steel alloy, nickel, nickel alloy, titanium alloy, zinc, zinc alloy, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, an electrode of the electrode stack is rectangular, circular, or semi-circular. In some embodiments, the electrode stack contains a plurality of electrodes having between 10 and 10,000 perforations, and the perforations range in size from about 100 micrometers (pm) to about 4 millimeters (mm). In some embodiments, the electrode stack contains between 10 and 100 electrodes. In some embodiments, the electrode stack contains between 20 and 80 electrodes. In some embodiments, the electrode stack contains a plurality of electrodes aligned in parallel with one another. In some embodiments, the electrode stack contains at least two adjacent electrodes disposed at an angle relative to one another, wherein the angle ranges from about 0 degrees to about 15 degrees. In some embodiments, the electrode stack contains a plurality of electrodes aligned in parallel with the flow of the source water stream through the tank. In some embodiments, the electrode stack contains a plurality of electrodes aligned perpendicular to the flow of the source water stream through the tank. In some embodiments, a spacing between adjacent electrodes in the electrode stack ranges from about 2 millimeters (mm) to about 50 mm apart. In some embodiments, the spacing between the adjacent electrodes ranges from about 2 mm to about 12 mm apart.

[00091 Iⁿ some embodiments, a contact time between the electrode stack and the source water stream ranges from about 50 seconds to about 880 seconds. In some embodiments, the tank of the electro-hydro reactor includes a plurality of fluidly connected tanks, each of the plurality of fluidly connected tanks containing a plurality of electrode stacks that is electrically connected to the power source to electrify the plurality of electrode stacks. In some embodiments, the plurality of fluidly connected tanks includes at least one tank disposed above another tank in a multi-story arrangement. In some embodiments, a tank of the electro-hydro reactor includes a gas collection device configured to collect hydrogen gas that is produced as the source water stream contacts the one or more electrified electrode stacks.

[0010] Embodiments include a water treatment method. The method includes flowing a source water stream through one or more tanks of an electro-hydro reactor. Each of the one or more tanks containing one or more electrode stacks that are electrically connected to a power source to electrify the one or more electrode stacks, such that the source water stream contacts the one or more electrified electrode stacks, thereby to yield an electrotreated water stream.

[0011] In some embodiments, the method includes electrifying the one or more electrode stacks with AC, DC, or pulsed DC electrical power. In some embodiments, electrifying the one or more electrode stacks includes applying AC electrical power at a frequency from about 0.5 hertz (Hz) to about 15 kilohertz (KHz). In some embodiments, electrifying the one or more electrode stacks includes applying a voltage ranging from about 1 volt (V) to about 480 V. In some embodiments, electrifying the one or more electrode stacks includes applying a current density ranging from about 600 milliamps per square centimeter (mA/cm²) to about 18,000 mA/cm². In some embodiments, the source water stream contacts the one or more electrified electrode stacks for a contact time ranging from about 50 seconds to about 880 seconds.

[0012] In some embodiments, prior to flowing the source water stream through the one or more tanks of the electro-hydro reactor, the method includes flowing a raw water feedstock through a discharge chamber and a roughing filter to remove macroscopic solids from the raw water feedstock, thereby to yield a pretreated water stream that forms at least a portion of the source water stream. In some embodiments, the method includes combining the electrotreated water stream, a polyelectrolyte, and a gas saturated water stream to form a scum layer, a settlement layer, and an advanced dissolved air floatation (ADAF) treated water stream and then separating the ADAF treated water from the scum layer and the settlement layer, thereby to yield the ADAF treated water stream. In some embodiments, the method includes combining a recycled portion of the ADAF treated water stream with the pretreated water stream, thereby to yield the source water stream. The recycled portion ranges from about 20% to about 60% of the ADAF treated water stream.

[0013] Embodiments of the system include a control system of a water treatment train having an electro-hydro reactor. The control system includes an artificial intelligence (Al) controller. The Al controller includes at least one memory storing a trained neural network model and a desired composition of a processed output water stream, and includes at least one processor configured to execute stored instructions to perform actions. The actions include receiving, from a first sensor array in signal communication with the Al controller, a measured composition of a raw feedstock water stream. The actions include receiving, from a second sensor array in signal communication with the Al controller, a measured composition of a processed output water stream. The actions include providing, as input to the trained neural network model, at least the measured composition of the raw feedstock water stream, the measured composition of the processed output water stream, and the desired composition of the processed output water stream, and responsive to the input, receiving, as output from the trained neural network model, recommended operational parameters of the water treatment train. The actions include providing control signals to modify operational parameters of the electro-hydro reactor based on the recommended operational parameters output from the trained neural network model.

[0014] In some embodiments, modifying the operational parameters of the electro-hydro reactor includes modifying electrical power supplied to one or more electrified electrode stacks of the electrohydro reactor. In some embodiments, modifying the electrical power supplied to the one or more electrified electrode stacks of the electro-hydro reactor includes modifying the electrical power to be AC electrical power, DC electrical power, or pulsed DC electrical power. In some embodiments, modifying the electrical power supplied to the one or more electrified electrode stacks of the electro-hydro reactor includes modifying a voltage of the electrical power to a value ranging from about 1 volt (V) to about 480 V. In some embodiments, modifying the electrical power supplied to the one or more electrified electrode stacks of the electro-hydro reactor includes modifying a current density of the electrical power to a value ranging from about 600 milliamps per square centimeter (mA/cm²) to about 18,000 mA/cm². In some embodiments, modifying the electrical power supplied to the one or more electrified electrode stacks of the electro-hydro reactor includes modifying the electrical power to be AC electrical power and modifying a frequency of the electrical power to a value ranging from about 0.5 hertz (Hz) to about 15 kilohertz (KHz). In some embodiments, modifying the operational parameters of the electro-hydro reactor includes modifying a contact time that a source water stream contacts to one or more electrified electrode stacks of the electro-hydro reactor to a value range from about 50 seconds to about 880 seconds. [0015] In some embodiments, the control system includes one or more non-AI controllers in signal communication with the Al controller and with equipment of the water treatment train, and wherein, to provide the control signals to modify the operational parameters of the water treatment train, the processor of the Al controller is configured to provide the recommended operational parameters to the one or more non-AI controllers. The one or more non-AI controllers are configured to provide control signals to the equipment of the water treatment train to modify the operational parameters of the water treatment train based at least in part on the recommended operational parameters received from the Al controller. In some embodiments, the one or more non-AI controllers include one or more programmable logic controllers (PLCs), one or more supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) systems, or both.

[0016] In some embodiments, the first sensor array, the second sensor array, or both, respectively contain: a pH sensor, a temperature sensor, a flow rate sensor, a conductivity sensor, a total dissolved solids (TDS) sensor, a total suspended solids (TSS) sensor, a chemical oxygen demand (COD) sensor, a biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) sensor, a dissolved oxygen (DO) sensor, an oxidation reduction potential (ORP) sensor, a total organic carbon (TOC) sensor, a dissolved organic carbon (DOC) sensor, a nephelometric turbidity unit (NTU) sensor, a nitrogen sensor, a chlorine sensor, a phosphorus sensor, a microbial sensor, a polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) sensor, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the processor of the Al controller is configured to perform actions including: receiving, from a third sensor array communicatively connected to the Al controller, a measured composition of a mid-treatment water stream within the water treatment train, wherein the measured composition of the mid-treatment water stream is provided as input to the trained neural network model along with the measured composition of the raw feedstock water stream, the measured composition of the processed output water stream, and the desired composition of the processed output water stream.

[0017] Aspects and advantages of these exemplary embodiments and other embodiments, are discussed in detail herein. Moreover, it is to be understood that both the foregoing information and the following detailed description provide merely illustrative examples of various aspects and embodiments, and are intended to provide an overview or framework for understanding the nature and character of the claimed aspects and embodiments. Accordingly, these and other objects, along with advantages and features of the present disclosure, will become apparent through reference to the following description and the accompanying drawings. Furthermore, it is to be understood that the features of the various embodiments described herein are not mutually exclusive and may exist in various combinations and permutations.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0018] The accompanying drawings, which are included to provide a further understanding of the embodiments of the present disclosure, are incorporated in and constitute a part of this specification, illustrate embodiments of the present disclosure, and together with the detailed description, serve to explain principles of the embodiments discussed herein. No attempt is made to show structural details of this disclosure in more detail than may be necessary for a fundamental understanding of the embodiments discussed herein and the various ways in which they may be practiced. According to common practice, the various features of the drawings discussed below are not necessarily drawn to scale. Dimensions of various features and elements in the drawings may be expanded or reduced to more clearly illustrate embodiments of the disclosure.

[0019] FIG. 1 is a diagrammatic representation of a water treatment train, according to an embodiment.

[0020] FIG. 2 is a diagrammatic representation of an intake zone of the water treatment train, according to an embodiment.

[0021] FIG. 3 is a diagrammatic representation of an electro-hydro reactor zone of the water treatment train, according to an embodiment.

[0022] FIGS. 4A, 4B, and 4C are diagrammatic representations of electrodes of an electro-hydro reactor of the electro-hydro reactor zone of the water treatment train, according to an embodiment. [0023] FIG. 5 is a diagrammatic representation of an advanced dissolved air floatation (ADAF) zone of the water treatment train, according to an embodiment.

[0024] FIG. 6 is a diagrammatic representation of an oxidation reaction zone of the water treatment train, according to an embodiment.

[0025] FIG. 7 is a diagrammatic representation of a polishing zone of the water treatment train, according to an embodiment.

[0026] FIG. 8 is a diagrammatic representation of a control system for monitoring and controlling operation of the water treatment train, according to an embodiment.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

[0027] The present disclosure describes various embodiments related to systems and methods for water treatment. The description may use the phrases “in certain embodiments,” “in various embodiments,” “in an embodiment,” or “in embodiments,” which may each refer to one or more of the same or different embodiments. Furthermore, the terms “comprising,” “including,” “having,” and the like, as used with respect to embodiments of the present disclosure, are synonymous. The term “plurality” as used herein refers to two or more items or components. The terms “about” or “approximately” are defined as being close to as understood by one of ordinary skill in the art. In one non-limiting embodiment, these terms are defined to be within 10%, preferably within 5%, more preferably within 1%, and most preferably within 0.5%.

[0028] The terms “removing,” “removed,” “reducing,” “reduced,” or any variation thereof, when used in the claims and/or the specification includes any measurable decrease of one or more components in a mixture to achieve a desired result. The use of the words “a” or “an” when used in conjunction with any of the terms “comprising,” “including,” “containing,” or “having,” in the claims or the specification may mean “one,” but it is also consistent with the meaning of “one or more,” “at least one,” and “one or more than one.” The terms “wt.%,” “vol.%,” or “mol.%” refers to a weight, volume, or molar percentage of a component, respectively, based on the total weight, the total volume of material, or total moles, which includes the component. In a non-limiting example, 10 grams of component in 100 grams of the material is 10 wt.% of the component. As used herein, the term “zone” can refer to an area including one or more units and/or one or more sub-zones. Units can include one or more reactors or reactor vessels, heaters, chillers, exchangers, pipes, pumps, valves, compressors, sensors, analyzers, and controllers. Additionally, a unit, such as a reactor or vessel, can further include one or more zones or sub-zones that contain various equipment. The term “about” refers to a range of values including the specified value, which a person of ordinary skill in the art would consider reasonably similar to the specified value. In embodiments, “about” refers to values within a standard deviation using measurements generally acceptable in the art. In one non-limiting embodiment, when the term “about” is used with a particular value, then “about” refers to a range extending to ±10 % of the specified value, alternatively ±5% of the specified value, or alternatively ±1% of the specified value, or alternatively ±0.5% of the specified value. In embodiments, “about” refers to the specified value.

[0029] As used herein with respect to describing water (for example, a water stream, a water source), the term “composition” refers to a combination of all components (for example, biological components, organic components, inorganic components, dissolved gases) present within the water, as well as any properties (for example, conductivity, clarity, turbidity) or conditions (for example, temperature, pH, flow rate) of the water. As used herein, the term “DOPP13” refers to l,3-dioxa-2-oxoniapropene-3-ide. [0030] FIG. 1 is a diagrammatic representation of an embodiment of a water treatment train 100 that processes a raw water feedstock 102 to remove undesired components to yield a processed output water 104. While certain components are illustrated in FIG. 1, in other embodiments, the water treatment train 100 may include fewer components or additional components, depending on the composition of the raw water feedstock 102 and the desired composition of the processed output water 104. In some embodiments, the water treatment train 100 may be implemented entirely within a single trailer of a tractor-trailer rig, which enables a substantially smaller footprint than other water treatment systems and offers advantages in terms of mobility for deployment and redeployment. For example, in some embodiments, the water treatment train 100 may occupy a trailer of a tractor-trailer rig, in which the trailer has a length of ranging from about 48 feet (14.6 meters) to about 53 feet (16.2 meters), a width of about 8.5 feet (2.6 meters), and a height of about 13.5 feet (4.1 meters), while providing a treatment capacity of about 100,000 gallons (about 380 kiloliters) of raw feedstock water per day. Such embodiments enable deployments that are mobile or temporary. In some embodiments, the water treatment train 100 may occupy a total volume less than or equal to about 6100 cubic feet (about 170 cubic meters), while providing a treatment capacity of about 100,000 gallons (about 380 kiloliters) of raw feedstock water per day.

[0031] In some embodiments, the water treatment train 100 may be deployed as a fixed installation. For example, in some embodiments, the entire water treatment train 100 may be pre-constructed and delivered to the deployment site on a skid, on which the system operates after deployment. In other implementations, the water treatment train 100 may be deployed as a packaged plant, in which the entire water treatment train 100 is shipped to the deployment site as modules (for example, one or more modules per treatment zone) that are assembled/disassembled on-site. This modularity enables the water treatment train 100 to be expanded as needed by incorporating additional modules to the system to accommodate the desired volume of raw water feedstock 102 to be processed. This enables greater flexibility for deployment and future expansion with minimal ground and civil works and fewer regulatory permits, among other advantages.

[0032] For the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 1, the raw water feedstock 102 is first provided to an intake zone 106 for pretreatment, which is discussed in greater detail with respect to FIG. 2. The intake zone 106 generally performs a pretreatment to remove macroscopic solids from the raw water feedstock 102, via gravity, rotational movement, inter-particulate resistance, or a combination thereof, yielding a pretreated stream 108, while the solids are directed to sludge collection 109.

[0033] For the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 1, the pretreated stream 108 advances to an electrohydro reactor zone 110 for electro-hydro treatment, which is discussed in greater detail with respect to FIGS. 3 and 4. The electro-hydro reactor zone 110 generally receives the pretreated stream 108 and electrical power from a power source 112 to perform an electro-hydro treatment process to further degrade (for example, electroporate, oxidize, reduce, or pummel) components of the feedstock, including biological matter, organic matter, and/or inorganic matter, to yield an electrotreated stream 114 (also referred to herein as an electroporated water stream or an electroporated and manipulated water stream). As used herein, the term “biological matter” includes presently or previously living things, such as microbes (for example, bacteria, viruses, archaea, fungi, algae, or protists) and non-microbial life (for example, insects or worms), as well as byproducts or remains of living things (for example, cell walls, organelles, larvae, cysts, eggs, feces, blood, urine, or hair). As used herein, the term “organic matter” includes any carbon-based chemical species, such as naturally occurring organic matter (for example, proteins, fats, carbohydrates, or metabolic products) and/or non-naturally occurring organic matter (for example, polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), microplastics). As used herein, the term “inorganic matter” includes non-carbon-based chemical species, such as dissolved metal salts and suspended metal particles. For example, in terms of biological matter, the electro-hydro treatment includes electroporation, which lyses or otherwise degrades microbes present in the feedstock. In some embodiments, at least a portion of the power provided by the power source 112 may be provided by a renewable or green energy source, such as solar energy, wind energy, and/or hydroelectric energy, which may enable the water treatment train 100 to be deployed in geographic regions with limited or unreliable electrical power infrastructure.

[0034] For the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 1, the electrotreated stream 114 advances to an advanced dissolved air (or gas) floatation (ADAF) zone 116 for ADAF treatment, which is discussed in greater detail with respect to FIG. 5. The ADAF zone 116 generally receives the electrotreated stream 114, at least one polyelectrolyte from a polyelectrolyte source 118, and gas saturated water from a gas saturated water source 120. In some embodiments, the gas saturated water source 120 provides air saturated water, while in other embodiments, the gas saturated water source 120 provides DOPP13 saturated water. While referred to herein as gas saturated water source, in some embodiments, the gas saturated water source 120 may be only be partially saturated, while in other embodiments, the gas saturated water source 120 may be completely saturated. Within the conditions of the ADAF zone 116, solids in the electrotreated stream 114 flocculate or aggregate to into particulates to facilitate formation of a sediment layer that is denser than water and/or a scum layer or fdm that is less dense than water. The ADAF zone 116 separates the particulates of the sediment layer and the scum layer from the feedstock to produce an ADAF treated stream 128. In some embodiments, a predetermined portion 126 of the ADAF treated stream is recycled to the electro-hydro reactor zone 110 for further treatment.

[0035] For the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 1, the remainder of the ADAF treated stream 128 advances to oxidation reaction zone 130 for oxidation treatment, which is discussed in greater detail with respect to FIG. 6. The oxidation reaction zone 130 also receives a supply of DOPP13 132 from a DOPP13 source 124. Within the oxidation reaction zone 130, the ADAF treated stream 128 is combined with the DOPP13, in which the DOPP13 acts as an oxidizer to oxidize certain solids and dissolved compounds (for example, microbes, dissolved metals, dissolved or suspended perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS)) remaining in the ADAF treated stream 128. The mixture of the ADAF treated stream 128 and DOPP13 may traverse one or more devices (for example, venturis, dual throated venturis, potential mixers) to ensure effective mixing, to extend the lifetime of the DOPP13 in the mixture, and/or to promote coagulation or flocculation of formed or remaining solids. Additionally, the mixture of the ADAF treated stream 128 and DOPP13 may traverse one or more DOPP13 reaction tanks to ensure effective treatment, yielding a DOPP13 treated stream 136. The liquor may remain under various predetermined pressures.

[0036] For the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 1, the DOPP13 treated stream 136 advances to the polishing zone 138 for polishing treatment. Within the polishing zone 138, the DOPP13 treated stream 136 traverses one or more polishing units. Each of the polishing units are loaded with one or more types of polishing media to remove remaining undesired components from the DOPP13 treated stream 136, yielding a polished stream 140. The polished stream 140 subsequently advances to the rest zone 142, which includes at least one rest vessel. The rest vessel may be a circular or tubular tank with an inlet near the bottom to receive the incoming DOPP13 treated stream 136, which creates a circular motion within the DOPP13 treated stream 136. The purified water is subsequently extracted at or near the top of the of the rest vessel, yielding the processed output water 104. In some embodiments, the water treatment train 100 may lack one or more treatment zones (for example, the intake zone 106, the rest zone 142) to reduce the size or complexity of the system.

[0037] The undesired components of the raw water feedstock 102 that are separated from the water stream by the water treatment train 100 may be removed from the system in different ways. For example, in some embodiments, one or more of the components removed by the water treatment train 100 (or degradation products of such components) may be expelled from the system as a gas (for example, carbon dioxide, methane, hydrogen) that is released to atmosphere. In some embodiments, one or more of the components removed by the water treatment train 100 (or degradation products of such components) may be expelled from the system as a solid (for example, a sludge collected by the discharge chamber 202 or the roughing filter 204 of the intake zone 106, a scum or sludge collected from the ADAF zone 116, a sludge that is collected from backwash of the polishing units of the polishing zone 138) that is deposited at sludge collection 109. In some embodiments, one or more of the components may be desirably degraded in one or more zones of the water treatment train 100, and at least a portion of the degradation products may remain in the processed output water 104 as harmless or even useful components (for example, small quantities of minerals commonly present in potable water). [0038] FIG. 2 is a diagrammatic representation of an embodiment of the intake zone 106 of the water treatment train 100 illustrated in FIG. 1. For the illustrated embodiment, the intake zone 106 includes a discharge chamber 202 and a roughing filter 204. In some embodiments, the discharge chamber 202 may generally have a conical shape, and a cross-section of this conically shaped discharge chamber 202 is represented in FIG. 1. The raw water feedstock 102 is provided to a lower portion of the discharge chamber 202, which causes the liquid level within the discharge chamber 202 to rise. Once the raw water feedstock 102 in the discharge reaches a maximum liquid level 206, a portion of the raw water feedstock 102 spills over the inner side walls 208 to fill a collection volume 210 of the discharge chamber 202. Due to the effect of gravity and particulate rotation, denser solids settle to the bottom of the discharge chamber 202, and these denser solids are intermittently removed from the discharge chamber 202 and routed to sludge collection 109.

[0039] For the embodiment of the intake zone 106 illustrated in FIG. 2, once a sufficient amount of the raw water feedstock 102 accumulates in the collection volume 210, a submersible pump 212 is activated to route the collected volume to the roughing filter 204. This can also be achieved via gravity in some cases. The roughing filter 204 includes a screen 214 that blocks solids that are greater than a pore size of the screen from advancing through the remainder of the water treatment train 100. In some embodiments, the pore size of the screen 214 of the roughing filter 204 ranges from about 0.5 millimeters (mm) to about 2 mm. The portion of the raw water feedstock 102 that advances through the screen 214 of the roughing filter 204 is routed to the electro-hydro reactor zone 110 as the pretreated stream 108. Additionally, for the illustrated embodiment, the roughing filter 204 is configured for intermittent or continuous self-cleaning to avoid clogging and ensure an adequate flow rate, either autonomous or manually. During self-cleaning, the outer surface of the screen 214 is washed by the raw water feedstock 102 to remove collected solid residue, or pretreated water is reversed through the screen, and the resulting wash water proceeds to sludge collection 109. In some embodiments, the self-cleaning process may be triggered manually or in an automated fashion, such as in response to the passage of a predefined time duration since the last self-cleaning, or based on a flow rate (for example, a flow rate of the raw water feedstock 102 through the roughing filter, a flow rate of the pretreated stream 108 provided to the electrohydro reactor zone 110) dropping below a predefined minimal flow rate. In some embodiments, the selfcleaning process may be triggered by an Al controller, as discussed below with respect to FIG. 8, which may trigger the self-cleaning process based on one or more measured parameters of a water stream at various points in the water treatment train (for example, the raw water feedstock 102, the processed output water 104), as well as desired composition of the processed output water 104.

[0040] FIG. 3 is a diagrammatic representation of an embodiment of the electro-hydro reactor zone 110 of the water treatment train 100 illustrated in FIG. 1. For the illustrated embodiment, the electrohydro reactor zone 110 includes at least one electro-hydro reactor 302. The electro-hydro reactor 302 is a versatile water treatment device utilizing electrically induced processes, such as electrochemical, electrodialysis, electrocoagulation, and advanced electrical field applications, to generate reactive species, such as hydroxyl radicals, and to facilitate contaminant removal through molecular disruption, coagulation, and oxidation. By applying controlled electrical fields to the water matrix, the reactor effectively targets a wide range of contaminants, including microorganisms, such as Cryptosporidium and Giardia. and persistent organic and inorganic pollutants like, per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS). Embodiments of the systems and methods help to eliminate the need for consumables such as membranes, filters, or chemical additives, by achieving water treatment through physical, chemical, and energetic interactions. The electro-hydro reactor 302 is engineered for adaptability and efficiency, offering a sustainable solution for water purification across diverse applications, including industrial, municipal, and environmental sectors. Integrated real-time monitoring and automated control systems optimize its performance, ensuring compliance with stringent water quality standards while reducing operational complexity and costs. The broad applicability of the electro-hydro reactor 302 encompasses various electrical treatment mechanisms, making it a comprehensive solution for modern water treatment challenges.

[00411 The illustrated embodiment of the electro-hydro reactor 302 is a multi-story (i.e., two-story) electro-hydro reactor 302, while in other embodiments, the electro-hydro reactor 302 may be implemented as a longer, single-story reactor, or as a taller multi-story reactor (for example, three-story, four-story). The illustrated electro-hydro reactor 302 includes a metal frame 304 that secures a top tank 305A over a bottom tank 305B of the reactor. In some embodiments, the tanks 305A, 305B may be fabricated from stainless steel. For the illustrated embodiment, each of the tanks 305A, 305B of the electro-hydro reactor 302 includes three electro-hydro treatment regions, and each of these electro-hydro regions includes a respective electrode stack 306. In certain embodiments, each of the electrode stacks 306 includes between 10 and 100 electrodes, between 20 and 80 electrodes, or about 60 electrodes, arranged in parallel. The electrodes of the electrode stacks 306 are discussed in greater detail with respect to FIGS. 4A-C

[0042] For the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 3, the electrode stacks 306 are electrically connected to a power transformer 308 that provides suitable electrical power to the electrode stacks 306 during operation. The power transformer 308 is powered by a variable frequency drive 310 that is, in turn, supplied with electrical power by the power source 112. In certain embodiments, the electrode stacks 306 are supplied with AC, DC, or pulsed DC electrical power. In certain embodiments, a voltage is applied between the electrodes of the electrode stacks 306, and the voltage ranges from about 1 volt (V) to about 480 V (for example, from about 6 V to about 12 V). In certain embodiments, a current density applied to the electrode stacks 306 ranges from about 600 milliamps per square centimeter (mA/cm²) to about 18,000 mA/cm². In certain embodiments, the electrode stacks 306 are supplied with AC electrical power at a frequency from about 0.5 hertz (Hz) to about 15 kilohertz (KHz), as the Applicant has recognized that electro-hydro treatment with AC electrical power is more effective than DC electrical power in at least some treatment operations. It is presently recognized that the voltage range of the illustrated electro-hydro reactor 302 is substantially less than the voltage ranges used by other types of electrotreatment reactors, which operate at voltages from about 5000 to about 8000 V.

[0043] For the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 3, a respective vertical baffle 312 is disposed along the vertical sides of each of the electrode stacks 306, orthogonal to the electrode stacks 306. The baffles 312 are designed to guide and restrict the flow of the incoming stream to ensure that the incoming stream is exposed to each of the electrode stacks 306 for sufficient contact time to enable effective electro-hydro treatment. In some embodiments, the electro-hydro reactor 302 may additionally or alternatively include one or more weirs to accelerate, decelerate, and/or change the direction of the flow of the incoming stream. In certain embodiments, the baffles 312 may also be electrically connected to the power source 112 to serve as additional electro-hydro electrodes. For the illustrated design, each of the electrode stacks 306 is separated from the baffles 312 and the remainder of the reactor using spacers 314 fabricated from a suitable electrically insulating material (for example, rubber, acrylic, polyvinyl chloride (PVC)). Additionally, within each of the electrode stacks 306, each of the electrode plates is separated from the adjacent electrode plates by between 2 mm and 50 mm using spacers (for example, washers) fabricated from a suitable electrically insulating material (for example, rubber, acrylic, PVC). In some embodiments, adjacent electrode plates may be disposed between 2 mm and 12 mm apart, and more preferably, between 2 mm and 10 mm apart, to facilitate the desired electro-hydro treatment conditions (for example, current density).

[0044] For the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 3, during operation of the electro-hydro reactor 302, an inlet 316 of the top tank 305A of the electro-hydro reactor 302 receives the pretreated stream 108 from the intake zone 106. As noted herein, in some embodiments, the inlet 316 of the top tank 305A may also receive a recycled portion 126 of the ADAF treated stream from the ADAF zone 116. The liquid level increases until the stream successively spills over the top each of the baffles 312 of the top tank 305A to contact the electrodes of each of the electrode stacks 306 of the top tank 305A, while these electrodes are electrified to facilitate electro-hydro treatment of the received stream. After traversing the three electrode stacks 306 of the top tank 305A, the stream advances through one or more outlets 318 of the top tank 305A and into the bottom tank 305B. The liquid level in the bottom tank 305B increases until the received stream successively spills over the top each of the baffles 312 of the bottom tank 305B to contact the electrodes of each of the electrode stacks 306 of the bottom tank 305B, while these electrodes are electrified to facilitate electro-hydro treatment of the received stream. After being exposed to electrohydro conditions within both the top tank 305A and the bottom tank 305B, the electrotreated stream 114 advances to the ADAF zone 116. In some embodiments, the incoming stream may have a contact or dwell time in the electro-hydro reactor from about 50 seconds to about 880 seconds, depending on the composition of the raw water feedstock 102 and the desired parameters of the processed output water 104. While electroporation is generally focused on perforating the cell walls of microbes, the electrohydro reactor 302 disclosed herein also promotes reactions (for example, oxidation and reduction reactions) that degrade organic compounds (for example, PFAS, microplastics) and inorganic compounds (for example, dissolved metal salts, metallic particulates). While not wishing to be bound by theory, it is believed that PFAS compounds are degraded (for example, oxidized, reduced, and/or physically removed) by one or more of electro-hydro treatment in the electro-hydro reactor zone 110, ADAF treatment in the ADAF zone 116, or the DOPP13 treatment within the ADAF zone 116 and/or the oxidation reaction zone 130, or some combination thereof. For example, in some embodiments, the processed output water 104 may contain less than 10 parts-per-trillion (ppt) of PFAS species, such as about 4 ppt or less PFAS.

[0045] Under certain conditions, it is recognized that hydrogen gas may be formed by electrolysis side reactions during electro-hydro treatment. As such, in the illustrated embodiment, both the top tank 305A and the bottom tank 305B include a respective gas collection cover 320 that is designed to collect hydrogen gas that forms during electro-hydro treatment, such that the hydrogen gas may be safely vented to atmosphere, stored as a commercial product for sale, or combusted to provide heat input to a portion of the water treatment train or another industrial application. It is further recognized that the electrohydro treatment results in the temperature of the electrotreated stream 114 being warmer than the incoming stream. For example, in some embodiments, the incoming pretreated stream 108 may have a temperature that is less than or equal to 3 degrees Celsius, while the electrotreated stream 114 may have a temperature that is less than or equal to 55 degrees Celsius. While not wanting to be bound by theory, it is believed that a substantial portion of the heat in the electrotreated stream 114 is the result of exothermic processes that occur during the degradation of microbes, organic compounds, and/or inorganic compounds during the electro-hydro treatment. In some embodiments, heat exchangers may be implemented to warm the pretreated stream 108 and the recycled portion 126 of the ADAF stream using the excess heat from the electrotreated stream 114. In other embodiments, this excess heat may be converted into usable electrical power, for example, using thermoelectric devices or using a device that captures the excess heat in a heat capturing fluid (for example, helium gas) that is subsequently used to drive a microturbine in a closed loop. In general, it is presently recognized that, in general, when the incoming stream to the electro-hydro reactor zone 110 is colder, less power is consumed during electrohydro treatment, which reduces the operational cost of the water treatment train 100. However, it is also presently recognized that, when the incoming stream to the electro-hydro reactor zone 110 is warmer, the efficiency or effectiveness in the removal of undesired inorganic components is increased. As such, the temperature of the incoming stream may be selected and adjusted based on the quality of the raw feedstock water 102 and/or the desired parameters of the processed output water 104.

[0046] FIGS. 4A, 4B, and 4C are diagrammatic representations of embodiments of electrodes that form the electrode stacks 306 of the electro-hydro reactor 302 illustrated in FIG. 3. FIG. 4A illustrates a first type of electrode 402 having an electrical connection tab 404 disposed at the top left of the electrode 402. FIG. 4B illustrates a second type of electrode 406 having an electrical connection tab 408 disposed in the middle at the top of the electrode 406. FIG. 4C illustrates a third type of electrode 410 having an electrical connection tab 412 disposed at the top right of the electrode 410. For an embodiment, during assembly of an electrode stack 306, an electrode 402 is positioned at the front of the stack, followed by an electrode 406, followed by an electrode 410, and then the process is repeated until the entire electrode stack is formed. In an example, an electrode stack 306 may include 20 electrodes 402, 20 electrodes 406, and 20 electrodes 410, all arranged in parallel with one another. The notches in the electrical connection tabs 404 align such that each of the electrodes 402 of the electrode stack 306 are electrically connected to one another and to the power transformer 308 by a first pair of bus bars, the notches in the electrical connection tabs 408 align such that each of the electrodes 406 of the electrode stack 306 are electrically connected to one another and to the power transformer 308 by a second pair of bus bars, and the notches in the electrical connection tabs 412 align such that each of the electrodes 410 of the electrode stack 306 are electrically connected to one another and to the power transformer 308 by a third pair of bus bars. This results in the electrode stack 306 having an alternating arrangement of anodes and cathodes to facilitate the electro-hydro treatment.

[0047] For the embodiments illustrated in FIGS. 4A-4C, the electrodes 402, 406, 410 are solid and flat, while in other embodiments, the electrodes may be curved, perforated, spiked, needled, smooth, and/or textured. The electrodes 402, 406, 410 are fabricated from one or more conductive materials (for example, copper, copper alloys, iron, iron alloys, steel, steel alloys, aluminum alloys, stainless steel alloys, nickel, nickel alloys, titanium alloys, zinc, zinc alloys, or combinations thereof). In some embodiments, the electrodes 402, 406, 410 may be coated or electroplated with one or more conductive alloys. In certain embodiments, at least a portion of the electrodes may be at least partially or superficially sacrificial, wherein an outer conductive coating the electrodes reacts with phosphates under the electrohydro treatment conditions, degrading the coating of the electrode over time as the surface of the electrodes capture and bind to these phosphates, which facilitates removal of these reacted phosphates in the ADAF zone 116. In some embodiments, the use of AC current during treatment may result in cyclic superficial degradation and superficial deposition at the surface of the electrodes, which may result in certain electrodes maintaining substantially the same dimensions throughout operation. In certain embodiments, at least a portion of the electrodes may be non-sacrificial (for example, stainless steel) electrodes and indiscriminate, thereby rendering a suitable pulsed multi-directional, electro-mechanical reaction to pummel the cell wall of microbes to achieve at least one irreversible cell wall perforation. In some embodiments, the selection of the electrode material, the number of electrodes per electrode stack, the electrode spacing, and the dwell or contact time within the electro-hydro reactor 302 may be determined based on a full analysis of the raw water feedstock 102.

[0048] In some embodiments, the electrodes 402, 406, 410 may be physically arranged in parallel or at angles relative to one another. For example, in some embodiments, adjacent electrodes in an electrode stack may be disposed at an angle relative to one another, with the angle ranging from about 0 degrees to about 15 degrees. In some embodiments, the electrodes 402, 406, 410 may be flat or curved. In some embodiments, the electrodes 402, 406, 410 may be substantially rectangular, as illustrated, or may be circular or semi-circular (for example, for embodiments in which the tanks 305A and/or 305B have a circular or semi-circular cross-section). In some embodiments, the electrodes 402, 406, 410 may be substantially solid, except for the holes 414 that may be used to couple the electrodes together to form the electrode stacks using suitable mounting hardware (for example, bolts and non-conductive spacers, spacers that are manufactured out of selective composite materials). In some embodiments, the electrodes 402, 406, 410 may be perforated such that the water stream can at least partially flow through these perforations during electro-hydro treatment. For example, in some embodiments, the 402, 406, 410 may include a plurality of perforations (for example, from about 10 to about 10,000 perforations) that range in size from about 100 micrometers (pm) to about 4 millimeters (mm). In some embodiments, the number and dimensions of these electrode perforations may be selected based on desired operational parameter ranges of the electro-hydro reactor zone 110 (for example, hydraulic retention time, charge) and/or the composition of the incoming pretreated water stream 108 (for example, the amount of suspended solids, the diameter of suspended solids). In some embodiments, when the conductivity of the incoming pretreated water stream 108 is above a predetermined threshold value, then perforated electrodes may be preferentially selected. In some implementation, perforated electrodes may enable greater (for example, more intimate) contact between the electrodes and the water stream, the which may enable a reduction in the size of the electrodes, the number of electrode stacks, the size or number of the electro-hydro reactors, and so forth, which may be especially useful for embodiments in which physical constraints like size and space are important design considerations. While the electrode stacks 306 illustrated in FIG. 3 are oriented such that the electrodes 402, 406, 410 are aligned parallel to the direction of water flow. In other embodiments, one or more of the electrode stacks 306 may be oriented such that the electrodes 402, 406, 410 are not aligned in parallel to the direction of water flow, and instead may be aligned perpendicular to the direction of water flow, especially when perforated electrodes are used.

[0049] In some embodiments, the design parameters of the electrodes 402, 406, 410 and the electrode stacks 306 (for example, the electrode material, electrode spacing, adjacent electrode alignment, electrode alignment relative to the water flow) may be selected based on the composition of the raw water feedstock 102 being treated and/or the desired composition of the processed output water 104. For example, in some implementations, the electrodes 402, 406, 410 may be made of a standard material (for example, stainless steel). In other implementations, one or more design parameters may be selected based on the desired composition of the processed output water 104. For example, when the raw water feedstock is rich in nitrates/nitrites and/or the desired composition of the processed output water 104 is low in nitrates/nitrites, stainless steel or stainless steel alloy electrodes may be desirably selected for use in at least a portion of the electrode stacks 306, since the Applicant has recognized that electrodes made from these materials demonstrate an enhanced ability to degrade nitrates/nitrites. In another example, when the raw water feedstock is rich in phosphates and/or the desired composition of the processed output water 104 is low in phosphates, iron and iron alloys (for example, steel or other ferrous alloys) may be desirably selected for use in at least a portion of the electrode stacks 306, since the Applicant has recognized that electrodes made from these materials demonstrate an enhanced ability to degrade phosphates. More specifically, without wishing to be bound by theory, Applicant believes that phosphates dissolved in the received water stream may be converted into solid byproducts during electrohydro treatment using iron-containing electrodes, and these solid byproducts may be removed as scum or sludge within the ADAF zone 116. Additionally, without wishing to be bound by theory, Applicant also believes that manganese and/or arsenic metals dissolved in the received water stream may be converted into solid byproducts during electro-hydro treatment using iron-containing electrodes, and these solid byproducts may also be removed as scum or sludge within the ADAF zone 116. In addition to the electrode and electrode stack design parameters, operational parameters of the electro-hydro reactor zone 110 may also be selected and/or modified based at least in part on the composition of the raw water feedstock 102 and/or the desired composition of the processed output water 104, as discussed below with respect to FIG. 8. For example, in some embodiments, the salinity of the water to be treated may be used to determine the voltage and frequency used during the electro-hydro treatment, as the Applicant has recognized that the conductivity of the water to be treated may contain electrical reactance or impedances.

[00501 FIG. 5 is a diagrammatic representation of an embodiment of the ADAF zone 116 of the water treatment train of FIG. 1. The ADAF zone 116 receives the electrotreated stream 114 from the electrohydro reactor zone 110, a polyelectrolyte stream 502 from the poly electrolyte source 118, and a gas saturated water stream 504 from a gas saturated water source 120. The polyelectrolyte stream 502 may contain positively charged (for example, cationic) polymers, negatively charged (for example, anionic) polymers, zwitterionic polymers, polyvalent polymers, or combinations thereof. In some embodiments, one or more poly electrolytes of the poly electrolyte stream 502 may be selected based on testing (for example, jar-tests) of the raw water feedstock 102 and/or based on the charged species determined to be in the electrotreated stream 114. One purpose of the one or more polyelectrolytes of the polyelectrolyte stream 502 is to promote flocculation of charged species in the electrotreated stream 114 to form aggregates, including sediment that is denser than the remainder of the electrotreated stream 114 and scum that is less dense than the remainder of the electrotreated stream 114. A non-limiting list of example polyelectrolytes includes polyacrylamides and aluminum chloride hydroxides as coagulation and flocculation adjuvants.

[0051J For the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 5, the gas saturated water source 120 may be fluidly connected to a gas source and a water source to produce the gas saturated water stream 504. In some embodiments, the gas saturated water source 120 combines a compressed air stream 506 from an air compressor 508 with water from a later section of the water treatment train 100 (for example, the oxidation reaction zone 130, the polishing zone 138, the rest zone 142) to yield the gas saturated water stream 504. In some embodiments, the gas saturated water source 120 combines a DOPP13 stream 510 from a DOPP13 generator 512 with water from a later section of the water treatment train 100 (for example, the oxidation reaction zone 130, the polishing zone 138, the rest zone 142) to yield the gas saturated water stream 504. In some embodiments, the operation of the DOPP13 generator 512 is facilitated by a chiller 514. In certain embodiments, the DOPP13 generator 512 may be a corona discharge DOPP13 generator, or a cold plasma, dielectric barrier discharge DOPP13 generator. In some embodiments, nitrogen gas (N2) may be collected as a by-product of DOPP13 generation and may be used, for example, to infuse drinking water. In some embodiments, the DOPP13 generator 512 may produce a gas stream that contains or consists essentially of l,3-dioxa-2-oxoniapropene-3-ide (DOPP13) for use in the ADAF zone 116 and/or the oxidation reaction zone 130.

[0052] In some embodiments, the gas saturated water stream 504 includes gas bubbles of one or more sizes, such as macro-scale bubbles (for example, greater than about 50 pm in diameter), micro-scale bubbles (for example, from about 1 micrometer (pm) to about 50 pm in diameter), and/or nano-scale bubbles (for example, from about 20 nanometer (nm) to about 1 pm in diameter). The diameter of these gas bubbles defines the buoyancy imparted to particulates and how quickly the bubbles ascend. While larger bubbles rise faster and impart a greater buoyant force, a larger number of smaller bubbles can adhere to the surface of a given particulate. As such, in some embodiments, the diameter of the gas bubbles in the gas saturated water stream 504 range from about 20 nm to about 40 pm. In certain embodiments, the gas saturated water source 120 may include a device (for example, a nozzle, orifice, venturis, single or dual throated, AMJ#1) to induce a pressure differential that induces the uptake of the gas into the water. In some embodiments, the device may be positioned (for example, vertically or horizontally) at the discharge point to mix the water with the DOPP13 or compressed air stream as the gas saturated water stream 504 is introduced to the electrotreated stream 114.

[0053] For the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 5, the ADAF zone 116 includes at least one ADAF reactor 516 that receives the aforementioned input streams. During operation, within a first region of the ADAF reactor 516 upstream of a first baffle 518, the electrotreated stream 114 and the polyelectrolyte stream 502 are combined and mixed using a mixer 520 (for example, a static mixer) that is powered by a motor 522. The mixer 520 is controlled to provide a suitable level of mixing of these streams without disrupting the flocculation of particulates. While only a single mixer 520 is illustrated in FIG. 5, in other embodiments, multiple static mixers may be in the first region of the ADAF reactor 516. The mixture of the electrotreated stream 114 and the poly electrolyte stream 502 traverses under the first baffle 518 to reach a second region of the ADAF reactor 516, which extends between the first baffle 518 and a second baffle 524. In this second region, the mixture of the electrotreated stream 114 and the polyelectrolyte stream 502 is combined with the gas saturated water stream 504, and the gas bubbles adhere to the surface of particulates, causing particulates to float. The combined stream traverses over the top of the second baffle 524 to reach a third region of the ADAF reactor 516, in which a first portion of the particulates float to the top of a liquid level 526 within the ADAF reactor 516 to form a scum layer, while a second portion of particulates sink to the bottom to form a sediment layer. In general, it is desirable for the flow within the third region of the ADAF reactor 516 to be substantially laminar.

[0054] For the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 5, the ADAF reactor 516 includes a skimmer device 528, which may be a belt or chain driven device having skimming paddles that extend down to the top of the liquid level 526 to skim off portions of the scum layer. The skimmer device 528 then deposits the skimmed scum layer in a fourth region of the ADAF reactor 516, which extends from a third baffle 530 and a dividing wall 532 of the ADAF reactor 516. Additionally, a portion of the combined streams also spills over the top of the third baffle 530 to reach the fourth region of the ADAF reactor 516, and the scum-rich contents that collect in the fourth region advance to sludge processing. A substantial portion of the polyelectrolytes becomes incorporated into the sediment and/or scum that forms in the ADAF zone 116, and therefore, little to no polyelectrolytes advance to the oxidation reaction zone 130. The collected scum is high in proteins, minerals, nitrates, and phosphates. As such, in certain embodiments, the discharged scum can be collected and either dried and bagged or bottled in liquid form to be used as fertilizer. For certain embodiments in which the gas saturated water stream 504 includes DOPP13, the ADAF reactor 516 may be equipped with a gas collection system 531 to facilitate the collection and recycling of DOPP13 to reduce operational costs.

[0055] For the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 5, during operation, a portion of the combined streams in the third region of the ADAF reactor 516 advances through the passage 534 to reach a fifth region of the ADAF reactor 516, which is downstream of the dividing wall 532. The passage 534 is disposed near the vertical middle of the third region of the ADAF reactor 516 in order to block or prevent sediment or scum from advancing to the fifth region of the ADAF reactor 516. In some embodiments, the fifth region of the ADAF reactor 516 may serve as, or may be alternatively implemented as, a ballast tank that enables the collection of the processed streams, which may also function as a settlement tank to further reduce the particulate content. As such, in some embodiments, a scour channel may be included in the fifth region of the ADAF reactor 516 (or in a ballast tank that serves the same role) to enable these accumulated particulates to be intermittently ejected and directed to sludge collection. The portion of the combined streams that traverses the passage 534 spills over a fourth baffle 536 to yield an ADAF treated stream 538 that subsequently advances to the flow control device 540. The flow control device 540 is designed to optionally and selectively route a portion of the ADAF treated stream 538 back to the electrohydro reactor zone 110 for further processing as the recycled portion 126 of the ADAF treated stream, and to route the remainder 128 of the ADAF treated stream 538 to the oxidation reaction zone 130. In some embodiments, the portion of the ADAF treated stream 538 that is recycled back to the electrohydro reactor zone 110 may range from about 20% to about 60% of the ADAF treated stream 538. This recycling can enable further reductions in the quantity of undesired components in the stream prior to reaching the oxidation reaction zone 130. For example, in situations in which the raw water feedstock 102 is low quality (for example, includes a large number of particulates), the flow rate of the gas saturated water stream 504 may be increased and/or the amount of the ADAF treated stream 538 that is recycled back to the electro-hydro reactor zone 110 may be increased to ensure effective treatment. As noted below with respect to FIG. 8, in some embodiments, a control system of the water treatment train may modify operation of the flow control device 540 to control the amount of the ADAF treated stream 538 that forms the recycled portion 126 of the ADAF treated stream based, at least in part, on measured composition of the processed output water 104 relative to (or in proportion to) the desired composition of the processed output water 104.

[0056] FIG. 6 is a diagrammatic representation of an embodiment of the oxidation reaction zone 130 of the water treatment train 100 of FIG. 1. The illustrated oxidation reaction zone 130 includes the DOPP13 generator 512 and the chiller 514, as discussed above, which produce a DOPP13 stream 602 containing or consisting essentially of l,3-dioxa-2-oxoniapropene-3-ide (DOPP13) during operation. The DOPP13 stream 602 is provided to a bubble generator 604, which combines the DOPP13 stream 602 with a recycled water stream 606, as discussed below, to yield a bubble saturated DOPP13 stream 608. In some embodiments, the bubble generator 604 may be a pump or similar device capable of forming macro-scale bubbles, micro-scale bubbles, and/or nano-scale bubbles. While referred to therein as a bubble saturated stream, it may be appreciated that, in some embodiments, the stream 608 may only be partially saturated with bubbles, while in other embodiments, the stream 608 may only be completely saturated with bubbles. The bubble saturated DOPP13 stream 608 is combined with the ADAF treated stream 128 using one or more venturis 610 (also referred to herein as AMJ#1). In some embodiments, the one or more venturis 610 may have single or double orifices. The one or more venturis 610 operate in parallel or series dependent on the quality of the raw water feedstock 102 and the desired parameters for processed output water 104. While not wishing to be bound by theory, it is believed that the pressure drop enabled by the one or more venturis 610 extends the half-life of the DOPP13 in the combined streams within and downstream of the oxidation reaction zone 130. For example, in certain embodiments, from about 1 parts-per-million (ppm) to about 20 ppm of DOPP13 may be present in the DOPP13 treated stream 136. In certain embodiments, up to 2.8 ppm of DOPP13 may be detected in the DOPP13 treated stream 136 at 12 hours or even 24 hours after injection by the one or more venturis 610. In some embodiments, multiple venturis 610 may be connected in series, such that the infusion of DOPP13 into the received portion 128 of the ADAF treated stream occurs over two or more stages, in which the venturis may be differently sized to enable a maximum suitable infusion of DOPP13. One or more venturis 610 enable extensive mixing and intimate contact between the DOPP13 and all of the ADAF treated stream 128 to ensure effective treatment.

[00571 For the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 6, the oxidation reaction zone 130 includes one or more potential mixers 612 (also referred to herein as AMJ#2) that are electrically connected to a power transformer 614 and that are fluidly connected downstream of the one or more venturis 610. The one or more potential mixers 612 induce a pressure drop and a sheering motion while delivering electric charge (for example, AC or DC). In certain embodiments, the one or more potential mixers 612 dissipate or neutralize residual charges on particulates in the ADAF treated stream 128, while in other embodiments, the one or more potential mixers 612 may induce or increase charge in these particulates to promote flocculation. While not wishing to be bound by theory, it is believed that the additional potential drop and/or the sheering action enabled by the one or more potential mixers 612 increases the oxidationreduction potential (ORP) of the stream, thereby inducing an addition indirect disinfection (for example, a self-disinfection) aspect to the oxidation reaction zone 130. In some embodiments, one or more potential mixers 612 (for example, one or more of AMJ#2) can also be positioned on the incoming stream prior to the roughing filter 204 illustrated in FIG. 2.

[0058] For the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 6, after the combined bubble saturated DOPP13 stream 608 and ADAF treated stream 128 traverses one or more potential mixers 612, it is introduced into one or more DOPP13 reaction tanks 616. For the illustrated embodiment, the DOPP13 reaction tanks 616 include a first DOPP13 reaction tank 616A, a second DOPP13 reaction tank 616B, and a third DOPP13 reaction tank 616C, in which a volume of the first DOPP13 reaction tank 616A is twice the volume of the second DOPP13 reaction tank 616B and the third DOPP13 reaction tank 616C. In other embodiments, a different number of DOPP13 reaction tanks 616 may be used, and the relative volumes of the DOPP13 reaction tanks 616 may vary. A purpose of the DOPP13 reaction tanks 616 is to create an environment where, under pressurized conditions (for example, pressures greater than atmospheric pressure), the DOPP13 is kept in suspension and/or solution to increase the duration of contact between the DOPP13 and the ADAF treated stream 128. In some embodiments, the pressure within the DOPP13 reaction tanks 616 may range from about 0.1 bar to about 4 bar. As the DOPP13 decomposes into oxygen and hydroxyl radicals, this exerts an oxidizing or super-oxidizing effect on undesired components in the ADAF treated stream 128. This oxidizing treatment is effective at oxidizing inorganic compounds, such as metals and metal salts that are typically resistant to oxidation, as well as organic compounds (for example, PFAS), while also killing microbes to provide a disinfecting aspect. For the illustrated embodiment, each of the DOPP13 reaction tanks 616 includes a respective vent 618 that conditionally releases gas pressure within the tanks to maintain the desired pressure, and each of these vents 618 is fluidly connected to a gas collection system 620 that facilitates the collection and recycling of DOPP13 back into the oxidation reaction zone 130 or another portion of the water treatment train 100. For the illustrated embodiment, the combined bubble saturated DOPP13 stream 608 and ADAF treated stream 128 traverses from the first DOPP13 reaction tank 616A to the second DOPP13 reaction tank 616B, and then from the second DOPP13 reaction tank 616B to the third DOPP13 reaction tank 616C to yield the DOPP13 treated stream 136 that advances to the polishing zone 138. As noted, a portion 606 of the DOPP13 treated stream 136 is routed to the bubble generator 604 to produce the bubble saturated DOPP13 stream 608.

[0059] FIG. 7 is a diagrammatic representation of an embodiment of the polishing zone 138 of the water treatment train 100 of FIG. 1. The polishing zone 138 includes at least one polishing unit 700. For the illustrated embodiment, the polishing unit 700 includes a cylindrical or tubular vessel 702 (for example, a stainless-steel vessel) with domed ends that define collection and disbursement chambers. In some embodiments, the polishing zone 138 may include multiple pods of polishing units, in which each pod includes multiple (for example, 5 or fewer) of the polishing unit 700 operating in series or in parallel. For the illustrated embodiment, during normal polishing operation, the polishing unit 700 receives the DOPP13 treated stream 136 from the oxidation reaction zone 130 near the top of the vessel 702. The sealed vessel 702 is pressurized by the DOPP13 that remains suspended or dissolved in the DOPP13 treated stream 136, and the pressure in the vessel 702 may range from about 0.1 bar to about 4 bar. Under to force of gravity and/or pressure, the DOPP13 treated stream 136 traverses down the vessel 702 and through one or more types of polishing media 704. [0060] For the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 7, the polishing media 704 includes a first polishing medium 704A, a second polishing medium 704B, and a third polishing medium 704C, while in other embodiments, additional or fewer types or layers of media may be used. The polishing media 704 is retained by a nozzle plate 706 (for example, a stainless steel nozzle plate) disposed near the bottom of the vessel 702, in which the nozzle plate 706 includes a number of nozzles or apertures that enable the polished stream 140 to pass at a desired flow rate, while blocking or preventing the polishing media 704 from traversing the nozzle plate 706. In some embodiments, the flow rate of the polished stream 140 through the nozzle plate 706 is determined based on the total surface area of the polishing media 704. For example, in certain embodiments, the flow rate may be as high as 25 cubic meters (m³) of polished stream 140 per square meter (m²) of surface area of the polishing media 704 per hour, or as low as 5.7 m³ of polished stream 140 per m² of surface area of the polishing media 704 per hour depending on the quality of the raw water feedstock 102 (for example, 12 m³ of polished stream 140 per m² of surface area of the polishing media 704 per hour). The polished stream 140 then advances to the rest zone 142. The polishing unit 700 may be intermittently taken offline to wash the polishing media 704. As indicated in FIG. 7, during washing mode operation, water from the rest zone 142 is instead reverse pumped through the nozzle plate 706, through the polishing media 704, and it collected from the top of the vessel 702, where the impurity laden water is then advanced to sludge collection 109.

[0061] In certain embodiments, the rest zone 142 may include a cylindrical or tubular vessel, and the polished stream 140 may introduced to the vessel in a manner that imparts a circular or cyclonic motion. The polished stream 140 is rich in dissolved oxygen, which may gradually dissipate to ambient levels as the stream circulates in the rest vessel. In some embodiments, the rest vessel includes an inlet near the bottom of the rest vessel, while the processed output water 104 is collected at or near the top of the rest vessel. In some embodiments, in addition to the treatments discussed above, strong acids (for example, sulfuric acid, hydrochloric acid) may be used to remove undesired components of the raw water feedstock 102, and for such embodiments, the pH of the polished stream 140 may be adjusted using a suitable base (for example, sodium hydroxide, sodium bicarbonate) in the rest zone 142 to meet the desired parameters of the processed output water 104. In some embodiments, the total dwell time to transform the raw water feedstock 102 to the processed output water 104 is between 3 minutes and 12 minutes. The disclosed technology relates to all waters and their manipulation and enhancement to achieve improvement of any nature to any degree. [0062] FIG. 8 is a diagrammatic representation of an embodiment of a control system 800 of the water treatment train 100. For the illustrated embodiment, the control system 800 includes two types of controllers: an artificial intelligence (Al) controller 802 and one or more non-AI controllers 804. The controllers 802 and 804 are in signal communication with two or more water composition sensor arrays 806 to receive measurements regarding the composition of a water stream, including at least the raw water feedstock stream 102 and the processed output water stream 104. Additionally, for the illustrated embodiment, the Al controller 802 is in signal communication with the one or more non-AI controllers

804, such that the Al controller 802 is able to provide instructions or control signals to the one or more non-AI controllers 804 to modify operation of one or more treatment zones 805 of the water treatment train 100. Responsive to receiving the instructions or control signals from the Al controller 802 and the measurements from the water composition sensor arrays 806, the non-AI controllers 804 may conditionally provide instructions or control signals to modify operation of one or more treatment zones

805.

[0063] The water composition sensor arrays 806 include multiple sensors capable of measuring the composition of a water stream. In some embodiments, the water treatment train 100 illustrated in FIG. 1 may include a first water composition sensor array fluidly coupled to receive and analyze the raw water feedstock stream 102 upstream of the first treatment zone (for example, the intake zone 106), and may include a second water composition sensor array fluidly coupled to receive and analyze the processed output water stream 104 downstream of the final treatment zone (for example, the rest zone 142). In some embodiments, the water treatment train 100 may include additional water composition sensor arrays 806 that are fluidly connected between other treatment zones of the water treatment train 100 to analyze the composition of a water stream between treatment steps, such as between the intake zone 106 and the electro-hydro reactor zone 110, between the electro-hydro reactor zone 110 and the ADAF zone 116, between the ADAF zone 116 and the oxidation reaction zone 130, between the oxidation reaction zone 130 and the polishing zone 138, and/or between the polishing zone 138 and the rest zone 142.

[0064] In some embodiments, each of the water composition sensor arrays 806 may include one or more of: a pH sensor 808, a temperature sensor 810, a flow rate sensor 812, a conductivity sensor 814, a total dissolved solids (TDS) sensor 816, a total suspended solids (TSS) sensor 818, a chemical oxygen demand (COD) sensor 820, a biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) sensor 822, a dissolved oxygen (DO) sensor 824, an oxidation reduction potential (ORP) sensor 826, a total organic carbon (TOC) sensor 828, a dissolved organic carbon (DOC) sensor 830, a nephelometric turbidity unit (NTU) sensor 832, nitrogen (for example, nitrate, nitrite, ammonia) sensor(s) 834, chlorine (for example, Ch, chloride) sensors 836, phosphorus (for example, phosphate, ortho-phosphate) sensor(s) 838, microbial sensors 840 (for example, heterotrophic plate count (HPC) sensor, total coliform sensor, fecal coliform sensor, E. Coli sensor), or a PFAS sensor 842. In certain embodiments, the microbial sensors 840 may include a laserbased system capable of scanning a portion of a water stream for any microbes that respire and rapidly provide the results (for example, in 20 minutes or less). In some embodiments, the water composition sensor arrays 806 may additionally or alternatively include any other sensors capable of measuring any relevant aspect of a water stream. In some embodiments, the suite of sensors within each of the water composition sensor arrays 806 may be selected based on preliminary testing of a particular raw water feedstock stream 102. For example, for an embodiment of the water treatment train 100 that is designed to receive a raw water feedstock stream 102 from a municipal water treatment system, the water composition sensor arrays 806 may include sensors related to detecting and measuring biological and/or organic components (for example, COD sensors, BOD sensors, DO sensors). For an embodiment of the water treatment train 100 that is designed to receive a raw water feedstock stream 102 from an industrial waste stream, the water composition sensor arrays 806 may include sensors related to detecting and measuring inorganic or chemical components (for example, N sensors, Cl sensors, P sensors, PFAS sensors).

[0065] For the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 8, the control system 800 includes the Al controller 802 and one or more non-AI controllers 804. While described herein as controllers, it may be appreciated by those skilled in the art that, in other embodiments, the controllers 802, 804 may be or include any suitable computing system, such as a desktop, laptop, or tablet computing device. Additionally, while the illustrated embodiment of the control system 800 includes controllers 802, 804, in some embodiments, the control system 800 may include additional controllers in signal communication with one another, for example, distributed, in series, or supervisory to sub-component controllers, among others, as will be understood by those skilled in the art. For example, in some embodiments, the controllers 802, 804 may be disposed at the same location as the remainder of the water treatment train 100 and may be in signal communication (for example, via a computer network or the Internet) with a remote supervisory control and data acquisition (SCAD A) system of a centralized command-and-control center capable of remotely monitoring and/or controlling certain operational parameters of multiple water treatment trains deployed at different geographic locations. As used herein, “signal communication” refers to a communicative connection that enables electric communication, including hard wiring two components together or wireless communication, as understood by those skilled in the art. For example, wireless communication may be Wi-Fi®, Bluetooth®, ZigBee, or forms of near field communications, as will be understood by those skilled in the art. In addition, signal communication may include one or more intermediate controllers or relays disposed between elements that are in signal communication with one another.

[0066] For the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 8, the Al controller 802 includes one or more processors, such as processor 850, as well as a memory or machine-readable storage medium, such as memory 852. The one or more non-AI controllers 804 each include one or more processors, such as processor 854, as well as a memory or machine-readable storage medium, such as memory 856. As used herein, a “machine-readable storage medium” may be, for example, any electronic, magnetic, optical, or other physical storage apparatus to contain or store information such as executable instructions, data, and the like. For example, any machine-readable storage medium described herein may be any of random-access memory (RAM), volatile memory, non-volatile memory, flash memory, a storage drive, a hard drive, a solid-state drive, any type of storage disk, and the like, or a combination thereof. The memory 852 stores or includes instructions executable by the processor 850, and the memory 856 stores or includes instructions executable by the processor 854. As used herein, a “processor” includes, for example, one processor or multiple processors included in a single device or distributed across multiple computing devices. The processor 850, 854 may be at least one of a central processing unit (CPU), a semiconductor-based microprocessor, a graphics processing unit (GPU), a field-programmable gate array (FPGA) to retrieve and execute instructions, a real-time processor (RTP), other electronic circuitry suitable for the retrieval and execution instructions stored on a machine-readable storage medium, or any combination thereof.

[0067] For the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 8, the memory 856 of the one or more non-AI controllers 804 stores control modules that are executed by the processor 854 of the one or more non-AI controllers 804 to control operation of the treatment zones 805 of the water treatment train 100. For example, in some embodiments, a non-AI controller may store and execute an intake control module 858, an electro-hydro reactor zone control module 860, an oxidation reaction zone control module 862, an ADAF zone control module 864, a polishing zone control module 866, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the one or more non-AI controllers 804 may include a respective non-AI controller for each of the treatment zones 805, such as an intake zone controller, an electro-hydro reactor zone controller, and so forth. In some embodiments, the one or more non-AI controllers 804 may be implemented as programmable logic controllers (PLCs), SCADA systems, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, instead of being stored in the memory 856 and executed by the processor 854 as software-based control modules, one or more of the control modules 858, 860, 862, 864, and 866 may instead be implemented as hardware-based modules or a mixture of software-based and hardware-based modules.

[0068] For the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 8, one or more non-AI controllers 804 are in signal communication with at least a portion of the sensors of the water composition sensor arrays and with sensors and devices disposed within the treatment zones 805. The control modules 858, 860, 862, 864, and 866 are generally designed to evaluate measurements received from the water composition sensor arrays 806 and from sensors, devices, and systems disposed within the treatment zones 805. The control modules 858, 860, 862, 864, and 866 define operational limits or boundaries (for example, engineering limits, safety limits) to prevent damage, undue wear, and/or improper operation of equipment operating in the treatment zones 805. Based at least in part on the received measurements from various sensors, the control modules 858, 860, 862, 864, and 866 provide control signals to devices and systems disposed in the treatment zones 805 to ensure that this equipment is operated in accordance with these predefined operational limits during treatment of the feedstock water.

[0069] For the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 8, the memory 852 of the Al controller 802 stores one or more Al models 870 and a desired composition 872 of the processed output water 104. The desired composition 872 may be predefined (for example, programmed) during deployment of the water treatment train 100 and/or modified by an authorized user after deployment. In some implementations, the desired composition 872 may be predefined in accordance with local rules and regulations, with consideration to the source (for example, wastewater processing plant, storm sewer, agricultural run-off, industrial wastewater streams) and composition of the raw water feedstock 102 and the target application of the processed output water 104 (for example, potable water applications, agricultural water applications, industrial water applications).

[0070] For the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 8, the one or more Al models 870 are generally designed to receive, as input, measurements from the water composition sensor arrays 806 and the desired composition 872 of the processed output water 104. Responsive to this input, the one or more Al models 870 are designed to provide, as output, instructions or control signals to the one or more non- AI controllers 804 to modify operational parameters of the treatment zones 805 to improve water treatment (for example, to minimize a difference between the measured and the desired composition of the processed output water 104). In some embodiments, the memory 852 may include a respective Al model designed to provide instructions or control signals that modify the operation of a particular treatment zone (for example, an intake zone Al model, an electro-hydro reactor zone Al model, and so forth). In some embodiments, the one or more Al models 870 may include one or more neural networks, such as artificial neural networks (ANNs), recurrent neural networks (RNNs), convolutional neural networks (CNNs), feedforward neural networks, radial basis function networks, and/or long short-term memory (LSTM) networks. In some embodiments, the one or more Al models 870 may be neural networks having at least three layers, including an input node layer, one or more hidden node layers, and an output node layer. The input nodes layer may include a respective node for each signal or measurement received from the water composition sensor arrays 806. The nodes of the input layer may be communicatively connected to provide signals to a plurality of hidden nodes of the one or more hidden nodes layers. The hidden nodes of the one or more hidden nodes layers may be communicatively connected to provide signals to the output nodes of the output node layer. In some embodiments, the neural network may have a respective output node for each operational parameter of the water treatment train.

[0071] In some embodiments, the one or more Al models 870 may generally encode or include entrained relationships between the (i) composition of water streams measured at least before and after (and potentially during) treatment, (ii) the desired composition 872 of the processed output water 104, and (iii) the various operational parameters of the water treatment train 100. The relationships may be entrained (for example, encoded as higher-order representations) within the one or more Al models 870 by training these models using training data that was previously collected operational data of the water treatment train, training data generated from this previously collected operational data, and/or training data based on expert feedback, as would be understood by the skilled artisan. In some embodiments, the one or more Al models 870 may continually improve predictions, or may be retrained or fine-tuned to improve predictions, based on data collected throughout operation of the water treatment train. A nonlimiting list of example operational parameters includes, but is not limited to: electrical parameters (for example, current density, voltage, frequency) of the one or more electro-hydro reactors 302 of the electro-hydro reactor zone 110, contact or dwell time of a water stream in the one or more electro-hydro reactors 302 of the electro-hydro reactor zone 110, the amount of the polyelectrolyte stream 502 introduced into the water stream in the ADAF zone 116, mixing rate of the mixer 520 of the ADAF zone 116, operational parameters of the DOPP13 generator 512 to generate and supply DOPP13 to the ADAF zone 116 and/or the oxidation reaction zone 130, a respective flow rate of a water stream through each of the treatment zones 805, predetermined recycled portion 126 of the ADAF treated stream that is recycled back to the electro-hydro reactor zone 110, a potential applied by the one or more potential mixers 612 of the oxidation reaction zone 130, a pressure within the DOPP13 reaction tanks 616 of the oxidation reaction zone 130, and/or a flow rate of a water stream through the polishing media of the one or more polishing units 700 of the polishing zone 138. Accordingly, as the one or more Al models 870 are provided with data from the water composition sensor arrays 806 as input, the one or more Al models 870 provide instructions or control signals as output to dynamically modify operational parameters of the water treatment train in real time to enable effective water treatment.

[0072] For the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 8, the instructions or control signals output by the Al controller 802 are provided first to the one or more non-AI controllers 804, and the one or more non-AI controllers 804, in turn, provide instructions or control signals to the equipment disposed in each of the treatment zones 805 to enable effective treatment. If the one or more non-AI controllers 804 determine that an output of the one or more Al models 870 exceeds the operational limits or boundaries for equipment in the treatment zones 805 (for example, as defined in the control modules 858, 860, 862, 864, and 866), the one or more non-AI controllers 804 may respond by disregarding the particular output, or may respond by modifying the output to instead be in accordance with the predefined operational limits or boundaries before the instructions or control signals are provided to the treatment zones 805 to modify the operation of the water treatment equipment therein.

[0073] While the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 8 includes both the Al controller 802 and the non- AI controller 804, other embodiments may omit the Al controller 802 to reduce the complexity of the control system 800, such that the one or more non-AI controllers 804 may be programmed to receive the measurements from the water composition sensor arrays 806 and provide instructions or control signals to modify operation of one or more treatment zones 805 without input from an Al controller. However, the illustrated embodiment offers enhanced Al-based control strategies that are determined by the Al controller 802, while the one or more non-AI controllers 804 ensure that these control strategies are only implemented in accordance with the predefined operational limits or boundaries to prevent damage, undue wear, and/or improper operation of the treatment zones 805. In other words, for the illustrated embodiment, the Al controller 802 enables Al-driven, real-time predictive control of the water treatment train 100 based on the quality of the water at two or more points in the treatment train and a desired composition of the output stream. However, because some Al-control strategies can implement operational parameter changes that are unpredictable and/or lack explainability, which could lead to unpredictable or unreliable operation of the treatment train, the one or more non-AI controllers 804 act as an intervening protective layer in the illustrated embodiment, filtering or modifying instructions from the Al controller 802 to ensure that the equipment within the treatment zones 805 is only instructed to be operated in accordance with predefined limits, which prevents unpredictable or unreliable operation of the treatment train. In some embodiments, when an output from the Al controller 802 is ignored or modified by the one or more non-AI controllers 804, the non-AI controllers 804 may also record or report the event (for example, to a SCADA system of a centralized command-and-control center). For example, the one or more non-AI controllers 804 may store details regarding the data received from the water composition sensor arrays 806 that provoked the out-of-bounds instructions or control signals to be generated by the one or more Al models 870, the out-of-bounds instructions or control signals themselves, the corrective action taken by the one or more non-AI controllers 804 to prevent the out-of- bounds instructions or control signals from reaching the equipment of the treatment zones 805, and other potentially relevant information (for example, location of the treatment train, date/time of the event, versions of one or more Al models, predefined operational limit or boundary that was overrun by the out-of-bounds instruction or control signal). In some embodiments, this stored or reported data may be used in subsequent retraining or fine-tuning of the one or more Al models 870 to improve the operation of these models by reducing the number of out-of-bounds instructions or control signals generated during operation.

[0074] Experimental Examples

[0075] Embodiments of the water treatment train 100 were reduced to actual practice and used to treat raw water feedstocks from different sources to evaluate the ability of the water treatment train 100 modify the composition of the raw water feedstock into a suitable processed output water. In a first example indicated in Table 1, over the course of three days of operation, the water treatment train 100 was able to successfully reduce the amount of a number of undesired components of a raw water feedstock. In particular, as indicated in Table 1, the water treatment train 100 enabled a decrease in the nitrate content ranging from about 60% to about 70%, a decrease in BOD ranging from about 66% to about 75%, a decrease in TOC ranging from about 22% to about 36%, a decrease in DOC ranging from about 25% to about 40%, a decrease in TSS ranging from about 75% to about 80% or more, a decrease in phosphorus (in the form of orthophosphate) ranging from about 86% to about 93%, a decrease in turbidity ranging of more than 50% or more, as well as complete elimination of (for example, an approximately 100% decrease in) fecal coliform and E. Coli. [0076] Table 1: Composition of the raw water feedstock (source water) and the processed water output (treated water), with amounts indicated in milligrams per liter (mg/L), for a first experimental example.

Table 1

[0077] In a second example indicated in Table 2, over the course of fourteen days of operation, the water treatment train 100 was able to successfully reduce the turbidity and increase the clarity of a raw water feedstock. In particular, as indicated in Table 2, the water treatment train 100 enabled a decrease in nephelometric turbidity units (NTU) ranging from about 83% to about 95%, substantially reducing the turbidity and increasing the clarity relative to the raw feedstock water during each day of operation. [0078] Table 2: Turbidity of the raw water feedstock (source water) and the processed water output (treated water), with amounts indicated in nephelometric turbidity units (NTU), for a second experimental example.

Table 2

[0079] In a third example indicated in Table 3, over the course of three years of test operation at an experimental site, the water treatment train 100 was able to successfully reduce the biological components of a raw water feedstock. In particular, as indicated in Table 3, the water treatment train 100 enabled complete elimination of (for example, an approximately 100% decrease in) a number of microbial species, including Total Coliform Bacteria, Microcystis, Chlorella, Scenedesmus, Oocystis Euglene, Cryptosporidium, Giardia, Somatic Coliphages, E. Coli, and Fecal Coliform Bacteria over a three-year period in which a total of 4.672 billion gallons of raw feedstock water were treated. As such, the water treatment train 100 is able to produce a processed output water stream 104 that is completely free of pathogenic microbes.

[0080] Table 3 : Average bacterial counts in the raw water feedstock (source water) and the processed water output (treated water) for a third experimental example.

Table 3

[0081] In a fourth example indicated in Table 4, over the course of one day of operation, the water treatment train 100 was able to successfully decrease the amount of the organic and inorganic components in a raw water feedstock obtained downstream from a sewage wastewater treatment plant. In particular, as indicated in Table 4, the water treatment train 100 enabled a decrease in TOC of about 40%, a decrease in DOC of about 47%, a decrease in aluminum content of about 76%, a decrease in antimony content of about 4%, a decrease in arsenic content of about 24%, a decrease in barium content of about 1%, a decrease in calcium content of about 4%, a decrease in copper content of about 32%, a decrease in magnesium content of about 2%, a decrease in potassium content of about 1%, a decrease in sodium content of about 2%, and a decrease in zinc content of about 74%.

[0082] Table 4: Organic and inorganic composition of the raw water feedstock (source water) and the processed water output (treated water), with amounts indicated in mg/L, for a fourth experimental example.

[0083] In a fifth example indicated in Table 5, over the course of three days of operation, the water treatment train 100 was able to successfully decrease the amount of the biological, organic, and inorganic components in a raw water feedstock. In particular, as indicated in Table 5, the water treatment train 100 enabled a decrease in HAA5 of about 80%, a decrease in nitrogen content (from nitrate) ranging from about 70% to about 81%, an increase in pH (closer to neutral) ranging from about 4% to about 8%, a decrease in TOC ranging from about 22% to about 36%, a decrease in DOC ranging from about 35% to about 39%, a decrease in TDS ranging from about 7% to about 15%, a decrease in phosphorus content (from orthophosphate) ranging from about 82% to about 93%, as well as complete elimination of (for example, an approximately 100% decrease in) Fecal Coliform and E. Coli. Table 6 includes the maximum contaminant level goal (MCLG) and the maximum contaminant level (MCL) (in units mg/L, except for pH) for a number of components as defined by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EP A) Drinking Water Standards Tables (2018 edition). As such, the processed water output of the water treatment train indicated in Table 5 is safe for human consumption as potable water.

[0084] Table 5: Biological, organic, and inorganic composition of the raw water feedstock (source water) and the processed water output (treated water), with amounts indicated in mg/L (except for pH and temperature), for a fifth experimental example.

[0085] Table 6 : The maximum contaminant level goal (MCLG) and the maximum contaminant level (MCL) (in mg/L, except for pH) for a number of components as defined by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EP A) Drinking Water Standards Tables (2018 edition).

[0086] Other objects, features, and advantages of the disclosure will become apparent from the foregoing figures, detailed description, and examples. It should be understood, however, that the figures, detailed description, and examples, while indicating specific embodiments of the disclosure, are given by way of illustration only and are not meant to be limiting. Additionally, it is contemplated that changes and modifications within the spirit and scope of the disclosure will become apparent to those skilled in the art from the detailed description. In further embodiments, features from specific embodiments may be combined with features from other embodiments. For example, features from one embodiment may be combined with features from any of the other embodiments. In further embodiments, additional features may be added to the specific embodiments described herein.

Claims

CLAIMS What is claimed is:

1. An electro-hydro reactor comprising: at least one tank containing at least one electrode stack electrically connected to a power source, the power source being configured to electrify the at least one electrode stack, the electrohydro reactor being configured to receive and flow a source water stream through the at least one tank to contact the at least one electrified electrode stack, yielding an electrotreated water stream having a decreased amount of one or more components relative to the source water stream.

2. The electro-hydro reactor of claim 1, wherein the one or more components include biological matter, organic matter, inorganic matter, or any combination thereof.

3. The electro-hydro reactor of claim 1, wherein the one or more components are modified within the electro-hydro reactor by electroporation, pummeling, oxidation, reduction, or any combination thereof.

4. The electro-hydro reactor of claim 1, wherein the at least one electrode stack is configured to be electrified using alternating current (AC) electrical power, direct current (DC) electrical power, or pulsed DC electrical power.

5. The electro-hydro reactor of claim 4, wherein the at least one electrode stack is configured to be electrified with electrical power having a voltage ranging from about 1 volt (V) to about 480 V.

6. The electro-hydro reactor of claim 5, wherein the voltage ranges from about 6 V to about 12 V.

7. The electro-hydro reactor of claim 4, wherein the at least one electrode stack is configured to be electrified with electrical power having a current density ranging from about 600 milliamps per square centimeter (mA/cm²) to about 18,000 mA/cm².

8. The electro-hydro reactor of claim 4, wherein the at least one electrode stack is configured to be electrified with AC electrical power at a frequency from about 0.5 hertz (Hz) to about 15 kilohertz (KHz).

9. The electro-hydro reactor of claim 1, wherein the at least one electrode stack is electrically connected to a power transformer, wherein the power transformer is electrically connected to a variable frequency drive, and wherein the variable frequency drive is electrically connected to the power source.

10. The electro-hydro reactor of claim 1, wherein at least one electrode of the at least one electrode stack contains copper, copper alloys, iron, iron alloys, steel, steel alloys, aluminum alloys, stainless steel alloys, nickel, nickel alloys, titanium alloys, zinc, zinc alloys, or any combination thereof.

11. The electro-hydro reactor of claim 1, wherein at least one electrode of the at least one electrode stack is rectangular, circular, or semi-circular.

12. The electro-hydro reactor of claim 1, wherein the at least one electrode stack contains a plurality of electrodes having between 10 and 10,000 perforations, and wherein the perforations range in size from about 100 micrometers (pm) to about 4 millimeters (mm).

13. The electro-hydro reactor of claim 1, wherein the at least one electrode stack contains between 10 and 100 electrodes.

14. The electro-hydro reactor of claim 13, wherein the at least one electrode stack contains between 20 and 80 electrodes.

15. The electro-hydro reactor of claim 1, wherein the at least one electrode stack contains a plurality of electrodes aligned in parallel with one another.

16. The electro-hydro reactor of claim 1, wherein the at least one electrode stack contains at least two adjacent electrodes disposed at an angle relative to one another, and wherein the angle ranges from about 0 degrees to about 15 degrees.

17. The electro-hydro reactor of claim 1, wherein the at least one electrode stack contains a plurality of electrodes aligned in parallel with the flow of the source water stream through the at least one tank.

18. The electro-hydro reactor of claim 1, wherein the at least one electrode stack contains a plurality of electrodes aligned perpendicular to the flow of the source water stream through the at least one tank.

19. The electro-hydro reactor of claim 1, wherein a spacing between adjacent electrodes in the at least one electrode stack ranges from about 2 millimeters (mm) to about 50 mm apart.

20. The electro-hydro reactor of claim 19, wherein the spacing between the adjacent electrodes ranges from about 2 mm to about 12 mm apart.

21. The electro-hydro reactor of claim 1, wherein a contact time between the at least one electrode stack and the source water stream ranges from about 50 seconds to about 880 seconds.

22. The electro-hydro reactor of claim 1, wherein the at least one tank of the electro-hydro reactor includes a plurality of fluidly connected tanks, each of the plurality of fluidly connected tanks containing a plurality of electrode stacks that is electrically connected to the power source to electrify the plurality of electrode stacks.

23. The electro-hydro reactor of claim 22, wherein the plurality of fluidly connected tanks includes at least one tank disposed above another tank in a multi-story arrangement.

24. The electro-hydro reactor of claim 1, wherein at least one tank of the electro-hydro reactor includes a gas collection device configured to collect hydrogen gas that is produced as the source water stream contacts the one or more electrified electrode stacks.

25. A water treatment method comprising: flowing a source water stream through one or more tanks of an electro-hydro reactor, each of the one or more tanks containing one or more electrode stacks that are electrically connected to a power source to electrify the one or more electrode stacks, such that the source water stream contacts the one or more electrified electrode stacks, thereby to yield an electrotreated water stream.

26. The water treatment method of claim 25, comprising electrifying the one or more electrode stacks with alternating current (AC), direct current (DC), or pulsed DC electrical power.

27. The water treatment method of claim 26, wherein electrifying the one or more electrode stacks comprises applying AC electrical power at a frequency from about 0.5 hertz (Hz) to about 15 kilohertz (KHz).

28. The water treatment method of claim 26, wherein electrifying the one or more electrode stacks comprises applying a voltage ranging from about 1 volt (V) to about 480 V.

29. The water treatment method of claim 26, wherein electrifying the one or more electrode stacks comprises applying a current density ranging from about 600 milliamps per square centimeter (mA/cm²) to about 18,000 mA/cm².

30. The water treatment method of claim 25, wherein the source water stream contacts the one or more electrified electrode stacks for a contact time ranging from about 50 seconds to about 880 seconds.

31. The water treatment method of claim 25, wherein, prior to flowing the source water stream through the one or more tanks of the electro-hydro reactor, the method comprises flowing a raw water feedstock through a discharge chamber and a roughing filter to remove macroscopic solids from the raw water feedstock, thereby to yield a pretreated water stream that forms at least a portion of the source water stream.

32. The water treatment method of claim 31, comprising: combining the electrotreated water stream, a polyelectrolyte, and a gas saturated water stream to form a scum layer, a settlement layer, and an advanced dissolved air floatation (ADAF) treated water stream and then separating the ADAF treated water from the scum layer and the settlement layer, thereby to yield the ADAF treated water stream; and combining a recycled portion of the ADAF treated water stream with the pretreated water stream, thereby to yield the source water stream, wherein the recycled portion ranges from about 20% to about 60% of the ADAF treated water stream.

33. A control system of a water treatment train having an electro-hydro reactor, the control system comprising: an artificial intelligence (Al) controller, comprising: at least one memory storing a trained neural network model and a desired composition of a processed output water stream; and at least one processor configured to execute stored instructions to perform actions comprising: receiving, from a first sensor array in signal communication with the Al controller, a measured composition of a raw feedstock water stream; receiving, from a second sensor array in signal communication with the Al controller, a measured composition of a processed output water stream; providing, as input to the trained neural network model, at least the measured composition of the raw feedstock water stream, the measured composition of the processed output water stream, and the desired composition of the processed output water stream, and responsive to the input, receiving, as output from the trained neural network model, recommended operational parameters of the water treatment train; and providing control signals to modify operational parameters of the electro-hydro reactor based on the recommended operational parameters output from the trained neural network model.

34. The control system of claim 33, wherein modifying the operational parameters of the electrohydro reactor includes modifying electrical power supplied to one or more electrified electrode stacks of the electro-hydro reactor.

35. The control system of claim 34, wherein modifying the electrical power supplied to the one or more electrified electrode stacks of the electro-hydro reactor includes modifying the electrical power to be alternating current (AC) electrical power, direct current (DC) electrical power, or pulsed DC electrical power.

36. The control system of claim 34, wherein modifying the electrical power supplied to the one or more electrified electrode stacks of the electro-hydro reactor includes modifying a voltage of the electrical power to a value ranging from about 1 volt (V) to about 480 V.

37. The control system of claim 34, wherein modifying the electrical power supplied to the one or more electrified electrode stacks of the electro-hydro reactor includes modifying a current density of the electrical power to a value ranging from about 600 milliamps per square centimeter (mA/cm²) to about 18,000 mA/cm².

38. The control system of claim 34, wherein modifying the electrical power supplied to the one or more electrified electrode stacks of the electro-hydro reactor includes modifying the electrical power to be AC electrical power and modifying a frequency of the electrical power to a value ranging from about 0.5 hertz (Hz) to about 15 kilohertz (KHz).

39. The control system of claim 33, wherein modifying the operational parameters of the electrohydro reactor includes modifying a contact time that a source water stream contacts to one or more electrified electrode stacks of the electro-hydro reactor to a value range from about 50 seconds to about 880 seconds.

40. The control system of claim 33, wherein the control system comprises one or more non-AI controllers in signal communication with the Al controller and with equipment of the water treatment train, and wherein, to provide the control signals to modify the operational parameters of the water treatment train, the processor of the Al controller is configured to provide the recommended operational parameters to the one or more non-AI controllers, and wherein the one or more non-AI controllers are configured to provide control signals to the equipment of the water treatment train to modify the operational parameters of the water treatment train based at least in part on the recommended operational parameters received from the Al controller.

41. The control system of claim 40, wherein the one or more non-AI controllers include one or more programmable logic controllers (PLCs), one or more supervisory control and data acquisition (SCAD A) systems, or both.

42. The control system of claim 33, wherein the first sensor array, the second sensor array, or both, respectively contain: a pH sensor, a temperature sensor, a flow rate sensor, a conductivity sensor, a total dissolved solids (TDS) sensor, a total suspended solids (TSS) sensor, a chemical oxygen demand (COD) sensor, a biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) sensor, a dissolved oxygen (DO) sensor, an oxidation reduction potential (ORP) sensor, a total organic carbon (TOC) sensor, a dissolved organic carbon (DOC) sensor, a nephelometric turbidity unit (NTU) sensor, a nitrogen sensor, a chlorine sensor, a phosphorus sensor, a microbial sensor, a polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) sensor, or any combination thereof.

43. The control system of claim 33, wherein the processor of the Al controller is configured to perform actions comprising: receiving, from a third sensor array communicatively connected to the Al controller, a measured composition of a mid-treatment water stream within the water treatment train, wherein the measured composition of the mid-treatment water stream is provided as input to the trained neural network model along with the measured composition of the raw feedstock water stream, the measured composition of the processed output water stream, and the desired composition of the processed output water stream.