Jordan

Jordan is divided into three major natural regions. They are (from east to west) the desert, the uplands east of the Jordan River, and the Jordan Valley.

The desert occupies the eastern and southern parts of the country—about four-fifths of Jordan’s territory. The desert region lies mostly within the Syrian Desert, which is an extension of the much larger Arabian Desert. The northern part of Jordan’s desert region is composed of ancient volcanic lava and dark basalt rock. The southern part is dominated by formations of sandstone and granite. The landscape in these areas is heavily eroded, or worn away, by wind.

In the northwest the Jordan River flows south into the Dead Sea. A long stretch of higher ground lies east of the river. These uplands have an average elevation of 2,000 to 3,000 feet (600 to 900 meters) above sea level. Some upland areas are also found farther south. Mount Ramm, the country’s highest point, rises to approximately 5,755 feet (1,754 meters) in southern Jordan.

The Jordan River provides water for the country’s major agricultural region, the Jordan Valley. This valley is the northwest portion of the Great Rift Valley, a long system of rifts, or breaks, in Earth’s crust. (The Great Rift Valley is a major branch of the East African Rift System.) The Jordan Valley drops to about 1,410 feet (430 meters) below sea level at the Dead Sea, the lowest natural point on Earth’s surface. South of the Dead Sea, a dry valley known as the Wadi al-ʿArabah (also part of the Great Rift Valley) extends to the Gulf of Aqaba, an arm of the Red Sea.

The climate of western Jordan—separated from the Mediterranean Sea only by the narrow width of Israel—is determined by mild Mediterranean winds and occasional rain. The eastern part of the country has a desert-type climate. In the south the influence of westerly winds from the Sahara desert in Africa is felt, and the land is generally dry. As Jordan’s population increases, water shortages in the major towns are becoming one of the country’s crucial problems.

The vast majority of the country’s people are Arabs. Ethnic Jordanians and Palestinians make up a great part of the Arab population. Hundreds of thousands of Palestinians fled to Jordan following the Arab-Israeli wars of 1948–49 and 1967. (Jordan is the only Arab country that has granted citizenship to large numbers of Palestinian refugees.) There is also a sizable number of Syrian refugees who immigrated to Jordan after the Syrian Civil War began in 2011, as well as a smaller number of Iraqis who fled to Jordan as a result of the Persian Gulf War and Iraq War. Other groups include Circassians (descendants of refugees who moved to Jordan from the Caucasus region in the 19th century), Egyptians, and Armenians.

Today Jordan has few nomadic (wandering) or seminomadic peoples. Historically, the nomadic Bedouins made up a significant part of the country’s population. The Bedouins traditionally lived as animal herders, moving with their herds across the desert. While some Bedouins still pursue a nomadic way of life, most have settled in permanent locations. Bedouins now account for only a small percentage of Jordan’s total population.

Nearly all the people of Jordan speak Arabic, the country’s official language. Various dialects of Arabic are spoken. English is widely taught as a second language.

Islam is the official religion. Virtually the entire population of the country is Sunni Muslim.

More than 90 percent of the people of Jordan live in urban areas. The main population centers include Amman, Al-Zarqāʾ, and Irbid. Many smaller towns have only a few thousand inhabitants. In rural areas, villages typically consist of a cluster of houses, a school, a mosque, and surrounding pastureland.

Jordan’s cultural life is a mix of traditional and modern influences. Many people still follow traditional ways of life passed down through generations. In rural villages, life centers on the extended family and on farming or other agricultural activities. Increasingly, however, Jordanians have migrated from rural to urban centers. In cities and the bigger towns, residents enjoy all aspects of modern popular culture, from theater performances and musical concerts to operas and ballets.

Traditional arts such as tapestry, embroidery, pottery, and leather crafts are still practiced. Singing and dancing are also important parts of the culture. Villagers have special songs for different events, and traditional group dances are performed during celebrations. As part of its effort to preserve local performing arts, the government sponsors a national troupe that is regularly featured on state television and radio programs.

Jordan has numerous cultural sites. The Jordan National Gallery of Fine Arts in Amman houses a collection of contemporary Arab and Muslim paintings as well as sculptures and ceramics. The ancient ruins at Petra and at Qasr ʿAmrah near Amman have been designated UNESCO World Heritage sites. There are also several archaeological museums located throughout the country.

The great majority of Jordan’s population—95 percent—can read and write. Schooling, which begins at age six, is divided into six years of primary, four years of lower secondary, and two years of upper secondary education. Most students attend government-run schools. Jordan’s oldest institutions of higher learning include the University of Jordan (founded 1962), Yarmouk University (1976), and Mutah University (1981).

Agriculture accounts for a small portion of the country’s gross domestic product (GDP), the total value of goods and services produced in a year. Although a large part of the country consists of desert, the Jordan Valley has areas of fertile land, especially where irrigation is possible. The valley provides vital crops such as vegetables, olives and other fruits, and grain. Sheep and goats are the most important livestock.

Unlike other countries in the Middle East, Jordan does not have significant oil deposits. Instead, it relies heavily on imported oil. Jordan does, however, have large deposits of phosphate minerals, which are used in making fertilizers. Phosphate mining, oil refining, and cement production are the country’s major heavy industries. Food, clothing, and a variety of consumer goods are also produced. Manufacturing is concentrated around Amman.

The service sector contributes about three-fifths of Jordan’s GDP. Trade and tourism are among the most productive parts of the sector. Jordan’s primary exports include fertilizers, phosphates, and clothing. Its main imports include crude oil, refined oil, and automobiles. Its major trading partners are China, Saudi Arabia, the United States, India, Iraq, and the United Arab Emirates.

The Jordanian government works hard to promote tourism. The country attracts several million tourists each year. Visitors mainly come from Western countries to see historic sites in the Jordan Valley and such wonders as the ancient city of Petra. Revenue earned from tourism has become very important for Jordan, helping the country pay for the goods it imports.

A major desert highway runs between Amman and the port at Al-ʿAqabah, Jordan’s only seaport. The highway serves as the main route through Jordan to the Red Sea and is used to transport many goods for export. A well-developed network of roads links the major cities and towns and also connects Jordan with neighboring countries. Queen Alia International Airport, the largest airport in Jordan, is located south of Amman.

Jordan Radio and Television Corporation, the state-owned broadcaster, operates the leading network of television and radio stations. International broadcasts are also available. Cell phone use in Jordan is widespread, and the number of Internet users includes more than 90 percent of the population.

People have lived in what is now Jordan for more than 200,000 years. Separated from ancient Palestine by the Jordan River, the region played a prominent role in biblical history. Biblical accounts of the area mention kingdoms such as Gilead in the north, Moab in central Jordan, and Midian in the south. These accounts date back to the Middle Bronze Age, a period that began about 2000 bc.

Assyrians, Babylonians, and Persians were among the invading powers who later controlled the region. In 64–63 bc the ancient Romans, under Pompey the Great, conquered the kingdom of Nabataea, which included territory in present-day Jordan. The kingdom remained independent but paid taxes to the Romans. In the 7th century ad the region fell to Arab invaders, who brought Islam to the area. The region became part of the Ottoman Empire during the 16th century. The Ottomans ruled Jordan for some 400 years.

After World War I (1914–18), the Ottoman Empire collapsed. In 1920 the Allied Powers held the Conference of San Remo in Italy to decide the future of the empire’s former territories. The conference divided the old Ottoman province of Syria into mandates—areas to be administered temporarily by Allied countries. The province’s northern half (Syria and Lebanon) was assigned to France. The southern half (Palestine) was assigned to Great Britain. The area of Jordan was initially included within the British mandate of Palestine and became known as Transjordan.

By 1921 the British had decided that Abdullah of the Hashemites, a powerful Arab family, would become emir (ruler) of Transjordan. In 1923 Britain recognized Transjordan’s independence under Emir Abdullah but retained the power to make decisions on key matters such as finances and military affairs. Full independence was finally achieved in 1946. Abdullah became king of Transjordan. In 1949 the name of the state was changed to the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan.

King Abdullah was assassinated in 1951 while on a trip to Jerusalem. His son Talal ruled briefly until mental illness led to his removal from office. Talal’s 17-year-old son, Hussein, became king in 1953. Jordan joined the United Nations in 1955.

From the outset of King Hussein’s reign, Jordan was troubled by internal strife and surrounded by potential enemies. To the west was the newly created land of Israel—against which King Hussein’s grandfather had fought a war in alliance with Arab states in 1948–49. That conflict brought the West Bank under the control of Jordan and sparked a refugee crisis, resulting in the settling of hundreds of thousands of displaced Palestinians within the borders of Jordan. The large mass of Palestinian refugees would remain a repeated source of political instability through much of King Hussein’s rule.

In addition to tensions with Israel, the Jordanian government also faced a threat from pan-Arab nationalists in the Middle East. (Pan-Arab nationalism is the belief that there should be political and cultural unity among Arab countries.) Pan-Arabists, led by Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser, accused the Jordanian leader of being too closely aligned with Britain and other Western powers. In 1957 Hussein—backed by loyal Bedouin troops—put down an attempted coup, or takeover, by pro-Egyptian military forces.

Despite his repeated conflicts with Nasser, King Hussein in 1967 joined an Egyptian-led coalition in the Six-Day War against Israel. The war proved disastrous for Jordan. Israeli forces occupied all of the territory that Jordan had conquered during the 1948–49 war with Israel, including East Jerusalem and the West Bank. The 1967 war sparked yet another refugee crisis, as more than 250,000 Palestinians from the occupied territories sought refuge in Jordan.

The arrival of new Palestinian refugees led to an increase in popular opposition to Hussein’s rule. In 1970 Palestinian guerrillas attempted to assassinate King Hussein on several occasions. (Guerrilla fighters are combatants who are not members of a government’s military or police forces.) This prompted the king to launch a widespread crackdown on Palestinian militants. During the ensuing civil war, known as Black September, troops loyal to Hussein killed several thousand Palestinian guerrillas in their bid to reestablish order.

Despite the internal conflicts with its Palestinian population, the Jordanian government in 1974 recognized the right of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) to establish an independent Palestinian state on the West Bank. In agreeing to this, Jordan effectively gave up its claim to the West Bank. However, Jordan continued to fund social and economic development in the territory and to pay salaries to territorial civil servants until 1988.

While Jordan sought to improve relations with its Arab neighbors, it also began to encourage more peaceful relations with its neighbor and rival, Israel. When war once again broke out between Israel and neighboring Arab states in 1973, King Hussein sent only a token force to aid Arab countries. Despite improved relations with Israel, Jordan broke off diplomatic relations with Egypt in 1979 following the Camp David agreements between Egypt and Israel. This was because Egypt had not affirmed the status of Palestinians in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. Relations with Egypt were restored in 1984.

Relations between Jordan and the bulk of its Arab neighbors were briefly disrupted following the United Nations military campaign against Iraq—historically, a close ally of Jordan—during the Persian Gulf War of 1991. Faced with internal pressure from its sizable Palestinian population, Jordan was the only Middle Eastern state to side with Iraq. The decision to support Iraq despite pressure from a number of Jordan’s close Western partners led to both international condemnation and a strong boost of popular support at home. This outpouring of support allowed King Hussein to formally lift martial law, which had been in effect since 1967, in July 1991. (Martial law is the temporary control of an area by military forces in times of emergency.)

Following the signing of the 1993 Palestinian-Israeli peace accords in Oslo, Norway, King Hussein and Israeli leader Yitzhak Rabin concluded a peace agreement between Israel and Jordan in 1994. This made Jordan the second Arab country after Egypt to recognize officially Israel’s right to existence. In exchange for the peace agreement, Israel agreed to return a portion of the Jordanian territory seized in the 1967 conflict. Despite the signing of the peace treaty, tensions between Israel and Jordan increased during the ensuing years, particularly after the election of hard-line Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu in mid-1996.

King Hussein’s reign as the leader of Jordan came to an end with his death on February 7, 1999. Hussein had long been viewed as a strong promoter of peace and stability in the region. His death raised international and regional concerns over the future direction of Jordanian foreign policy. Hussein was succeeded by his eldest son, Crown Prince Abdullah, who took the Hashemite throne as King Abdullah II. Upon becoming king, Abdullah vowed to carry on the pro-stability legacy established by his father.

King Abdullah largely continued his father’s policies. He strengthened ties with neighboring Arab countries, especially Egypt and Syria. He also worked to implement reforms aimed at modernizing and improving Jordan’s economy.

Following the September 11 attacks in 2001, King Abdullah supported the United States’ efforts to combat terrorism. In addition, he allowed U.S. forces to maintain bases in Jordan after the Iraq War began in 2003. The country’s close military cooperation with the United States, however, was generally unpopular with average Jordanians.

Beginning in 2010 a protest movement that became known as the Arab Spring swept across the Middle East and North Africa. Many people joined the movement because they believed their governments were unfair and because they were tired of living in poverty. In early 2011 thousands of Jordanians attended rallies in Amman to protest high prices, unemployment, public corruption, and a lack of democracy in Jordan. In response, King Abdullah dismissed the government, appointed a new prime minister, and initiated political reforms. Demonstrations continued in Jordan but never reached the size of protests that unseated several other Middle Eastern leaders during the Arab Spring.

Meanwhile, the Syrian Civil War added new pressures on Jordan as thousands of refugees from Syria began to stream into the country. The total number of displaced Syrians living in Jordan eventually reached as many as 1.5 million. Public services were strained, and important trade routes were disrupted by the turmoil.

In 2016 Jordan embarked on an economic reform program guided by the International Monetary Fund. The program was intended to boost economic growth and reduce public debt. The reforms significantly raised taxes, which led to new waves of protests in 2018—the largest in Jordan since the Arab Spring. Revised tax legislation was later passed that excluded low-income households from the tax hike. The country’s economy continued to struggle, however, especially after the global COVID-19 pandemic reached Jordan in 2020.

An unusually public dispute erupted within Jordan’s royal family in 2021. Prince Hamzah ibn Hussein, King Abdullah’s half-brother, was accused of plotting against the kingdom. Authorities reportedly restricted the prince from movement and communication, and other figures close to the royal family were arrested. Hamzah later signed a letter confirming his loyalty to the king. The prince eventually gave up his royal title in 2022.

In April 2025 the government said that it had thwarted a plot that endangered national security. The alleged plot was said to involve the illegal import and manufacture of rockets, explosives, and drones. People with ties to the Muslim Brotherhood, a religious and political organization active in numerous countries, were arrested in connection with the plot. Days later Jordan’s ministry of the interior announced a ban on the Muslim Brotherhood.