Introduction

Learning is the process through which individuals acquire new knowledge, behaviors, attitudes, and ideas. Humans must be sensitive to both meaningful and coincidental relationships between events in the environment to survive.[1] This learning process happens through both unconscious and conscious pathways. Classical conditioning, also known as associative learning, is an unconscious process where an automatic, conditioned response becomes associated with a specific stimulus. Although Edwin Twitmyer published findings on classical conditioning a year before Ivan Pavlov, the most recognized work in the field is attributed to Pavlov (a Russian physiologist born in the mid-1800s). Pavlov's significant contributions to classical conditioning have led to the term "Pavlovian conditioning" being used to describe it.[2][3]

The discovery of classical conditioning was accidental. While researching the digestion of dogs, Pavlov observed that the dogs' physical responses to food gradually changed. Initially, the dogs only salivated when the food was directly presented. However, he later noticed that the dogs began to salivate slightly before the food arrived in response to sounds consistently associated with feeding, such as the sound of the food cart. To test his theory, Pavlov conducted an experiment where he rang a bell shortly before presenting food to the dogs. Initially, the dogs did not salivate in response to the bell. However, as they learned to associate the sound of the bell with the arrival of food, they began to salivate at the sound alone.[4]

An unconditioned stimulus is something that naturally triggers an automatic response. In Pavlov's experiment, the food acted as the unconditioned stimulus. The unconditioned response is the automatic reaction to that stimulus, which in this case was the dogs salivating in response to the food.

A neutral stimulus initially elicits no response. Pavlov introduced the ringing of the bell as a neutral stimulus. Over time, a neutral stimulus can become a conditioned stimulus, which eventually triggers a conditioned response. In Pavlov's experiment, the ringing of the bell became the conditioned stimulus, and salivation was the conditioned response. Essentially, the neutral stimulus transforms into the conditioned stimulus. While the unconditioned and conditioned responses are the same physiological reaction—salivation—the difference lies in the stimulus that elicits them. In Pavlov's experiments, salivation was the response. The unconditioned response, triggered by food, was salivation, while the bell triggered the conditioned response.

Function

Pavlov observed several phenomena related to classical conditioning. He found that the rate of acquisition during the initial stages of learning depended on the prominence of the stimulus and the timing between the introduction of the neutral stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus. In Pavlov’s experiment, this was reflected in the interval between the bell ringing and the presentation of food. Pavlov also noted that the conditioned response was susceptible to extinction. If the conditioned stimulus was continuously supplied without the unconditioned stimulus, the conditioned response progressively weakened until it disappeared. For instance, if Pavlov rang the bell without presenting food, the dogs would eventually stop salivating in response to the bell. However, Pavlov also observed that spontaneous recovery could occur.

Even after a significant amount of time passed, the conditioned response would reappear if the neutral and unconditioned stimuli were paired again. Pavlov also discovered that stimulus generalization and stimulus discrimination could occur. Stimulus generalization occurs when dogs respond to stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus. Conversely, stimulus discrimination is the ability to differentiate between similar stimuli and respond only to the specific, correct stimuli.[5][6][7]

Issues of Concern

As seen in advertising, classical conditioning can influence people for gain. Advertisers try to create associations between their products and particular responses or feelings. Advertisers use music or mouth-watering food in their ads to establish a positive association with their product. These associations are highly effective in encouraging people to purchase the advertised product.

Applying aversive techniques is ethically questionable and a violation of an individual's civil rights. Punishment is a conditioning technique used by behavioral analysts, teachers, parents, and caregivers in schools, homes, and communities. Punishment contingencies are used disproportionately in preschool children and individuals with disabilities. Children with disabilities are 3.4 times more likely to experience maltreatment compared to those without disabilities. These individuals should be recognized as vulnerable and at greater risk of abuse.[8]

Clinical Significance

The profound influence of Pavlovian conditioning principles on health, emotion, motivation, and mental health therapies is a fascinating area of study. For example, individuals with a history of substance use may experience cravings when they are in environments where they previously used substances or around people they associate with previous substance use. The behaviorally conditioned, or learned, immune response is another example of classical conditioning. When a specific taste is paired with a drug affecting the immune system, the taste alone can trigger the immune response later.[9] 

Exposure therapy aims to treat anxiety disorders by gradually exposing patients to the source of their fear in a controlled and safe environment, often using images, simulations, or videos. A newer area of research focuses on virtual reality or augmented reality exposure therapy, where gradual exposure to negative stimuli is used to reduce anxiety.[10][11]

Monosymptomatic nocturnal enuresis is common, affecting approximately 5% to 7% of children aged 7. The current understanding is that enuresis is due to a mismatch between nocturnal urine production, bladder capacity, and the ability to wake up during sleep. The enuresis alarm is a device that provides a strong arousal stimulus, such as sound or vibration, to alert the child and family when urine activates a detector in the child's bed or clothing, helping the child wake up. The success rate ranges from 50% to 70%, and a significant proportion of those successfully treated achieve long-term resolution.[12]

Other Issues

Depending on the diagnosis, combining psychotherapy and pharmacotherapy can lead to better clinical outcomes than using either treatment alone.[13][14][15] The combined treatment for managing depression is more effective than either psychotherapy or pharmacotherapy alone, with no significant differences in efficacy between the 2 individual therapies.[16] Additionally, the use of antidepressants does not interfere with the effects of psychotherapy.[17] 

For adult posttraumatic stress disorder, current evidence from randomized controlled trials suggests that concurrent medication neither enhances nor diminishes the efficacy of psychological interventions.[18] Anxiety disorders should be treated with psychological therapy, pharmacotherapy, or a combination of both.[19]

Enhancing Healthcare Team Outcomes

Cohesiveness and consistency of the interprofessional healthcare team implementing classical conditioning interventions are crucial for success.[20][21] A strategic, evidence-based approach is essential to optimize treatment plans and minimize adverse effects. Ethical considerations must guide decision-making, ensuring informed consent and respecting patient autonomy. Each healthcare professional must be aware of their responsibilities and contribute their unique expertise toward the patient's care plan, thereby fostering a collaborative, multidisciplinary approach.

Effective interprofessional communication facilitates seamless information exchange and collaboration among healthcare team members. Care coordination is crucial for managing the patient's journey from diagnosis through treatment and follow-up, thereby minimizing errors and enhancing patient safety. By embracing these skillful principles, strategy, ethics, responsibilities, interprofessional communication, and care coordination, healthcare professionals can deliver patient-centered care and ultimately improve patient outcomes.

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Disclosure: Terrence Sanvictores declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.

Disclosure: Navid Mahabadi declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.

Disclosure: Chaudhry Rehman declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.