Perspective Chapter: Factory of the Future – Integrating Wireless Communication, Sensing, and Localization with 5G and 6G

1.1 State-of-the-art in industrial wireless technologies

The well-established wireless technologies in today’s industries include radio frequency identification (RFID) [5], Bluetooth [6], ultra-wideband (UWB) [7], and wireless–fidelity (Wi-Fi) [8]. These technologies are used to serve different industrial applications. For instance, industries employ RFID technology to monitor and track tools, materials, finished products, and workers in production halls [9]. High-value equipment and finished products are equipped with RFID tags, which store unique information (e.g., batch number, product ID). The RFID readers installed in specific regions of industries (e.g., checkpoints) track the items equipped with RFID tags when they pass through the checkpoints. Similarly, workers wearing badges with RFID tags are identified by RFID readers installed near machines, ensuring that only authorized personnel are allowed to operate them. Bluetooth technology is used for human–machine interaction (HMI), where tablets and wearables used by workers are utilized to connect to machines, monitor machine status and diagnostics, and execute control commands [10]. UWB technology is used to localize¹ mobile assets such as AGVs in indoor industrial environments. The AGVs utilize a localization system to determine their position within the industry and navigate to the designated location to perform their tasks (e.g., picking up or dropping off materials). UWB consists of two types of devices: anchors and tags. The UWB tag is connected to the AGV. On the other hand, the UWB anchors are installed at specific locations in the industry and are used to determine the position of the UWB tag (AGV) by transmitting radio pulses [11]. Wi-Fi technology supports high-speed wireless communication across various devices and applications, including the transfer of large volumes of data [12]. Its reliability and flexibility make it a foundational technology for digital transformation initiatives.

The wireless technologies discussed above face inherent limitations in coverage distance, scalability, reliability, latency, and interference with other industrial devices operating in the same frequency band, making them insufficient for meeting the stringent demands of FoF [13, 14, 15]. To realize the full vision of the FoF, characterized by ultra-reliable, low-latency communication, massive device connectivity, and real-time data exchange, the underlying wireless infrastructure must evolve. This transformation is enabled by advanced cellular technologies, such as fifth-generation (5G) and the emerging sixth-generation (6G), which are specifically designed to support autonomous operations and ensure high-quality service.

1.2 Role of 5G and 6G in realizing the FoF

The advent of 5G cellular communication technology has captured significant industrial interest, primarily due to its enhanced quality of service (QoS) guarantees and high reliability in mission-critical tasks.² Traditionally, the adoption of cellular technologies in industrial environments has been limited, primarily due to the requirement for licensed spectrum access, which national telecom regulators govern. While this regulatory constraint still applies to 5G, a notable shift has occurred. Industries now have greater flexibility in deploying dedicated networks within their premises. These tailored deployments, referred to as private networks or nonpublic networks (NPNs) in Third Generation Partnership Project (3GPP)³ terminology [16], enable enterprises to harness the full potential of 5G while maintaining control over data, coverage, and service quality.

Today, 5G is deployed and offers infrastructure-as-a-service, which includes enhanced mobile broadband (eMBB), massive machine-type communications (mMTC), ultra-reliable low-latency communications (URLLC), and precise localization [17, 18], as shown in Figure 1. The 5G eMBB delivers high-capacity wireless connectivity with gigabit per second (Gbps) data rates, massive spectral efficiency, and ubiquitous broadband access. In the context of FoF, eMBB is far more than just smooth video streaming; it is a strategic enabler of intelligent and connected manufacturing. As industries become increasingly digital and sensor-driven, eMBB provides the bandwidth and reliability needed to seamlessly transmit and process massive volumes of data, from high-resolution video for visual inspection systems to real-time updates from cloud-based machine learning models. The 5G mMTC redefines wireless connectivity by enabling up to 1 million low-power and low-complexity devices per square kilometer, a critical capability for powering the automation and scalability required in FoF. The mMTC enables the large-scale deployment of sensors, actuators, and embedded systems, providing real-time visibility, predictive maintenance, and energy optimization at an unprecedented scale and efficiency. Industrial applications, such as robotic motion control and precision machinery, require millisecond latency and 99.999% reliability, which legacy wireless technologies cannot provide. 5G URLLC sets a new benchmark, delivering deterministic, real-time connectivity that replaces traditional wired fieldbus systems without compromising performance. By guaranteeing timely and error-free communication, URLLC unleashes a new era of flexible and intelligent manufacturing systems. Lastly, 5G is natively designed to offer centimeter-level localization accuracy. 5G localization empowers high-precision, real-time tracking of AGVs, drones, and industrial tools, enabling dynamic workflow optimization, intelligent collision avoidance, and context-aware automation without relying on expensive infrastructure such as Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) systems. Unlike traditional positioning technologies confined to indoor setups, 5G’s extensive outdoor coverage seamlessly extends localization services beyond industry walls, supporting end-to-end visibility across the entire industrial value chain.

The 6G cellular communication technology is planned to be deployed by 2030 [19, 20]. Besides improving the quality of services provided by 5G, 6G will be designed to deliver everything-as-a-service,⁴ which includes Integrated Sensing and Communication (ISAC), artificial intelligence (AI)-native networks, and industrial subnetworks, as shown in Figure 1. The 6G ISAC transforms the cellular network into a distributed sensor system. By embedding radar-like sensing capabilities into the communication infrastructure, 6G ISAC enables the network to map and interpret its surrounding environment, creating a real-time digital twin. This turns the entire network into a wide-area, high-resolution environmental scanner with a significantly broader field of view (FoV) than any single sensor (e.g., LiDAR). As a result, 6G ISAC not only provides precise localization for active devices⁵ but also detects and tracks passive objects,⁶ unlocking new levels of situational awareness critical for applications like immersive extended reality (XR). AI will be natively embedded at the core of 6G system design, making intelligence a foundational element rather than an add-on. The 6G cellular networks will integrate dedicated AI hardware acceleration, enabling real-time inference at the edge. This tight coupling of optimized hardware together with advanced algorithms will unlock various applications such as autonomous network management, predictive maintenance, and adaptive resource allocation. With AI deeply woven into the fabric of 6G, the network becomes proactive, self-optimizing, and context-aware, setting a new benchmark for intelligent connectivity in FoF. In general, industrial assets such as machines and AGVs contain several components, including sensors and actuators. The communication between the sensors and actuators usually relies on a wired infrastructure, such as EtherCAT. 6G introduces the concept of subnetworks to replace the wired systems in industrial assets. The 6G subnetworks can be deployed as short-range cells embedded directly within industrial assets (e.g., machines and AGVs), providing intra-system communication tailored to the local needs of the assets. In addition, these subnetworks can seamlessly be integrated with existing micro and macro wireless infrastructures, enabling intelligent offloading of mission-critical tasks and ensuring consistent performance. Designed to maintain stringent service levels, 6G subnetworks can operate reliably in harsh radio environments, including areas completely outside traditional wireless infrastructure coverage. Table 1 provides a comparative analysis showing what is deployable now with 5G versus what remains exploratory for 6G.

2.1 High frequencies and large bandwidths

5G operates across two frequency ranges (FR): FR1 and FR2. FR1 is also known as the centimeter-Wave (cmWave) band and falls within the range of 450 MHz–6 GHz. On the other hand, FR2 is also known as the millimeter-Wave (mmWave) band, which operates in the range of 24.2 GHz–52.6GHz [21]. This dual-frequency framework enables 5G to balance wide-area coverage and deep indoor penetration (FR1) with ultra-high throughput and low latency (FR2). In complex industrial settings, where dense machinery and metallic structures obstruct wireless signal paths, the 5G FR1 band ensures resilient connectivity. Its lower frequencies offer superior penetration and wide-area coverage, making it essential for maintaining reliable wireless communication in hard-to-reach zones of the factory floor. The 5G FR2 band is ideal for industrial applications that require high data rates, low latency, and high localization accuracy. Each user equipment (UE) in the network is assigned a set of resource blocks (RB).⁷ Each RB consists of 12 subcarriers in frequency and spans one time slot in the time domain. A time slot contains 14 orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) symbols. The OFDM symbol is the smallest unit within the RB and is used to transmit UE data. 5G allows dynamically adapting the length of each time slot based on the latency and bandwidth demands of individual use cases. For instance, data-intensive applications, such as industrial sensors transmitting large datasets, can be allocated longer time slots to maximize throughput, enabling eMBB. In contrast, latency-critical applications, such as the localization of AGVs in industries, can benefit from shorter slot durations to ensure real-time responsiveness, thereby enabling URLLC.

2.2 Massive MIMO

The massive MIMO concept utilizes multiple antennas, typically tens to hundreds, equipped on both the transmitter (e.g., a base station) and the receiver (e.g., a UE). These multiple antennas enable the simultaneous transmission and reception of multiple data streams to and from numerous UEs, enhancing data throughput and spectral efficiency [22]. Generally, in complex environments such as industries, the radio signals transmitted by base stations are susceptible to signal attenuation and have limited coverage distances due to the presence of heavy obstacles. To overcome these challenges, massive MIMO steers the radio signals from the base station toward the intended UEs, avoiding obstacles and interference with neighboring base stations. This phenomenon is known as beamforming and is used to enhance the link quality between the base station and UEs. Beyond communication performance, massive MIMO plays a pivotal role in achieving high-precision 5G localization accuracy of UEs. Together with massive MIMO and beamforming, the probability of UEs having a line-of-sight (LoS) connection with the base station increases, thereby reducing the multipath components. As a result, UEs can perform accurate time-based (e.g., time of arrival and time difference of arrival) and angle-based (e.g., angle of arrival) measurements even in dense multipath industrial environments, leading to precise localization accuracy.

2.3 Device-to-device communication

D2D communication enables each UE to directly communicate with nearby neighboring UEs without requiring them to communicate over the base stations. By enabling proximity-based peer-to-peer connectivity, D2D reduces latency and offloads traffic from the cellular infrastructure. In addition, D2D achieves high 5G localization accuracy in scenarios where the UE is not in the LoS with the base station. However, it can still obtain information from an adjacent UE (e.g., time of arrival and/or round-trip time), which can be used for localization. This enables cooperative localization among UEs [24].

3.1 Terahertz communications

While 5G already leverages high mmWave frequencies to deliver enhanced connectivity, 6G is poised to push the boundaries even further by operating in the sub-terahertz (THz) and THz spectrum, extending beyond 100 GHz. The sub-THz typically refers to frequencies between 100 GHz and 300 GHz. The frequencies above 300 GHz are referred to as THz [25]. For 6G, most discussions focus on frequencies between 100 GHz and 1 THz, which unlocks unprecedented data rates and ultra-low latency, meeting the escalating demands of future intelligent applications. The THz frequencies are expected to do more than transmit data; they can function as highly precise radar systems capable of detecting objects with exceptional accuracy. Leveraging their short wavelengths and wide bandwidth, THz-based sensing enables the generation of high-resolution digital twins. The dual functionality of the 6G network, which enables both communication and environmental sensing, leads to the concept of ISAC. This capability is particularly transformative for industrial environments, where it can empower advanced applications such as AGV localization, real-time process control, and immersive XR systems. Furthermore, the extremely short wavelengths of the THz spectrum enable ultra-compact antenna designs, unlocking groundbreaking opportunities for nanoscale applications. This includes nanoscale devices, intra-body networks for workers, and the emerging Internet of Nano-Things, paving the way for a new era of miniature and seamlessly interconnected systems.

3.2 Reconfigurable intelligent surface

The region between a base station and a receiver is commonly referred to as the radio channel. The presence of obstacles such as walls, ceilings, and objects in the environment causes the transmitted signal from a base station to undergo reflection, refraction, or diffraction effects, resulting in the creation of multiple copies of the same signal. These multiple copies, which are part of a radio channel, interfere with and degrade the signal quality at the receiver. In conventional wireless systems, the radio channel between a base station and a receiver is uncontrollable. However, reconfigurable intelligent surface (RIS) has been introduced as a programmable structure to control the radio channel. A RIS is a planar, two-dimensional structure composed of a large array of low-cost, passive reflecting antenna elements that can dynamically control and steer the incident radio signal from a base station to the desired direction (e.g., receiver) without the need for active RF chains [26]. Unlike conventional MIMO systems that rely on dedicated RF hardware, RIS offers an energy-efficient alternative for enhancing wireless coverage and signal quality. Furthermore, as 5G and 6G shift toward mmWave and THz frequency bands, the reliance on RIS becomes increasingly critical. Due to the limited propagation range and poor penetration capabilities of high-frequency signals, RIS will play a pivotal role in dynamically redirecting and enhancing signal coverage, particularly within complex industrial environments where LoS is often obstructed.

3.3 Nonterrestrial networks

Terrestrial networks are land-based communication systems that rely on infrastructure such as base stations, fiber-optic cables, and antenna arrays to deliver high-capacity, low-latency connectivity across urban, suburban, and industrial environments. According to Ericsson, existing wireless infrastructure covers less than 40% of the Earth’s land surface [27, 28], highlighting a significant connectivity gap that next-generation networks must address to enable truly global communication. This limited coverage is primarily driven by the challenges of deploying infrastructure in hard-to-reach regions, including rural landscapes and isolated communities, where network rollouts are often economically and logistically unfeasible. Nonterrestrial networks (NTNs), comprising satellites and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), offer a scalable solution to overcome the limitations of terrestrial networks. Therefore, NTNs are recognized as key infrastructure, serving alongside terrestrial networks to deliver 6G services. In the context of FoF, NTNs can boost productivity, especially in outdoor environments. For instance, satellite-based NTN connectivity enables real-time tracking of containers and cargo across global supply chains. Additionally, industries can benefit from URLLC provided by NTNs to perform UAV-based inspections of their operations and connect various sensors for data collection across vast geographical areas.

4.1 Intelligent cameras

In the era of Industry 4.0, high-resolution cameras deployed across the factory floor are becoming key infrastructure for real-time monitoring, quality control, and automation. With the eMBB capabilities of 5G, these cameras can transmit massive volumes of raw image and video data at high speeds and with low latency directly to edge cloud platforms, where advanced AI-based image processing can take place.

The eMBB feature of 5G delivers Gbps data rates, making it ideal for streaming uncompressed or minimally compressed visual data from numerous distributed cameras in parallel. The wireless connectivity provided by 5G ensures that image feeds remain lossless, which is critical for applications such as visual inspection, predictive maintenance, and worker safety monitoring. The 5G eMBB and edge AI can create a powerful synergy, transforming passive camera systems into intelligent visual sensors.

4.2 Massive sensor networks for industrial automation

The mMTC capability of 5G enables the seamless connectivity of thousands, even millions, of sensors deployed across the industry. Designed to support high-density device environments, 5G mMTC empowers industries to continuously collect diverse measurements essential for real-time operations and AI-driven decision-making.

Sensors embedded throughout production lines, tools, and machines can monitor key parameters, including temperature, vibration, pressure, humidity, torque, and energy consumption. These high-resolution data streams can be fed into the edge cloud for processing and analytics. The vast sensor network enables essential applications such as predictive maintenance, anomaly detection, and real-time quality assurance, helping to identify performance degradations or defects before they escalate into costly failures.

4.3 Wireless human–machine interface control panel

The machines in industries are typically equipped with an HMI control panel to monitor and control their operations. In general, a wired connection is used to interface a machine with an HMI control panel. Wireless control panels powered by 5G can replace traditional wired control systems with flexible, real-time, and ultra-reliable wireless solutions. Leveraging the high bandwidth, ultra-low latency, and deterministic communication capabilities of 5G, particularly through features like URLLC, the wireless control panels enable secure and instantaneous control of industrial machinery, including safety-critical operations such as emergency stops, fault detection, and fail-safe actuation.

By eliminating physical wiring between machines and control panels, manufacturers gain significant advantages in terms of design flexibility, reduced installation and maintenance costs, and the ability to reconfigure production lines rapidly. In dynamic and modular Industry 4.0 environments, wireless-enabled control panels can be easily relocated, scaled, and integrated with other systems, enhancing adaptability and minimizing downtime.

4.4 Localization of industrial assets

The ability to locate industrial assets, including tools, machines, manufactured goods, and AGVs, precisely, remains a key requirement for industries. A wide variety of wireless solutions (e.g., RFID, UWB, Wi-Fi) have been utilized by various industries to meet their specific needs. However, 5G has the potential to enable precise localization on the factory floor, replacing all the traditional wireless solutions. By leveraging 5G’s advanced localization and URLLC capabilities, industries can achieve submeter accuracy in tracking assets across densely populated industrial environments.

5G can be used as a single infrastructure for providing both communication and localization services. The AGVs equipped with 5G modules can move intelligently through industries by avoiding collisions with other industrial assets and adapting their travel routes in real-time to reach their destinations more efficiently. Moreover, 5G localization also enhances safety and compliance. By geofencing restricted zones and tracking the proximity of workers to hazardous equipment, industries can enforce real-time safety protocols and prevent accidents from occurring. All of this is made possible without the need for external localization systems. Furthermore, through wide 5G coverage across the globe, industries can coordinate and localize their assets in manufacturing plants situated in different regions. Ultimately, 5G-based localization accelerates the journey toward fully autonomous industrial environments.

4.5 Distributed sensing

The ISAC, a cornerstone capability of 6G, marks a transformative leap in industrial digitalization by enabling wireless networks to function not only as channels for data transmission but also as tools for environmental sensing [29]. The 6G ISAC empowers industries to create dynamic, real-time digital twins of their physical environments. These digital twins, when combined with AI, can be used to deliver a variety of use cases. For instance, through 6G ISAC, industries can perform intrusion detection. The high-detection probability of 6G ISAC allows industries to detect unauthorized movement or access in restricted zones with centimeter-level accuracy, even in the absence of dedicated surveillance systems. In addition, by sensing the presence and movement of goods in storage or along conveyor systems, 6G ISAC automates inventory management and logistics tracking without relying on additional RFID technologies. The 6G ISAC-enabled digital twins can also be used to localize mobile targets, such as AGVs, and optimize their travel routes in the industry by determining the shortest path from source to destination. There may be situations where workers in the industry feel uncomfortable due to the continuous monitoring of the factory floor with camera systems that can also invade their privacy. In such situations, 6G ISAC can serve as an alternative to traditional camera-based surveillance systems, allowing for the monitoring of the factory floor and the detection of worker movement without compromising their privacy.

4.6 In-vehicle subnetworks

6G subnetworks are poised to revolutionize the internal communication architecture of industrial vehicles such as AGVs by replacing traditional wired systems with ultra-reliable and low-latency wireless connectivity. This shift toward wireless in-vehicle communication not only reduces the AGV’s physical wiring complexity and overall weight but also enhances flexibility in vehicle design and maintenance. These 6G subnetworks enable critical control functions within AGVs, including motor coordination, braking, and steering, all with wireless ultra-low latencies for high-priority safety-critical triggers. This level of reliability is crucial for real-time control systems in industrial automation, where even the slightest communication delay could compromise safety or operational precision. An in-vehicle access point (AP), integrated into the AGV, serves as the central node of the subnetwork. It gathers real-time data from various vehicle components and transmits it via a cellular 6G link to the edge or the cloud. These external systems can continuously monitor operational parameters, perform AI-driven diagnostics, and detect early signs of mechanical or electronic anomalies in the braking system, motor, or control logic. Upon detecting a potential fault, warning signals are sent back to the AGV, enabling proactive safety interventions before a failure occurs. By enabling predictive diagnostics and real-time responsiveness, 6G in-vehicle subnetworks greatly enhance the safety, efficiency, and intelligence of AGVs operating in industrial environments.

5.1 5G–ACIA

The 5G–ACIA is a leading force in driving the evolution of industrial connectivity through 5G and shaping the path toward 6G. Established under the umbrella of the German Electrical and Electronic Manufacturers’ Association, 5G–ACIA serves as the central global forum where key industrial stakeholders, ranging from telecom operators and equipment vendors to automation companies and research institutions, collaborate to ensure that emerging mobile communication standards meet the stringent demands of industrial use cases. 5G–ACIA actively contributes to international standardization bodies, such as 3GPP and ITU, ensuring that industrial requirements, including ultra-low latency and high reliability, are embedded within 5G and upcoming 6G specifications.

5.2 6G–IA

The 6G–IA stands at the forefront of global innovation in next-generation mobile communications. As a strategic force behind research, standardization, and industrial preparedness, 6G–IA is shaping the evolution from 5G Advanced to 6G. Its mission is to ensure these cutting-edge technologies are not only future-ready but also tightly aligned with the real-world demands of industries such as manufacturing, logistics, energy, and more, accelerating digital transformation across all sectors.

6.1 Business-related constraints

6.2 Technical barriers

6.3 Regulatory hurdles