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The world currently requires more food (particularly, animal products) than it can produce, but the food has to be produced in a safe and sustainable manner. For a long time, antibiotics have been used to promote growth and prevent diseases in livestock production, but their prolonged usage can lead to antibiotic resistance in the gut microbiota. Probiotics are postulated as a safer alternative to antibiotics in boosting animal performance and productivity. Basically, probiotics are live microorganisms that can confer health benefits to the host when administered in appropriate quantities. Once ingested, probiotic microorganisms can modulate the balance and activities of the gastrointestinal microbiota. In livestock production, probiotics have since been linked to improved performance and productivity, as well as good meat quality. This chapter, therefore, serves to highlight the beneficial effects of probiotics either as feed additives or supplements, and their effect on animal health, nutrition, growth and productivity, and the animal’s product quality. The chapter also explores the mode of action of probiotics in an in vitro animal feeding model.
Gastro-Intestinal Microbiology and Biotechnology Unit, Agricultural Research Council-Animal Production, Irene, Pretoria, South Africa
Goitsemang Makete
Gastro-Intestinal Microbiology and Biotechnology Unit, Agricultural Research Council-Animal Production, Irene, Pretoria, South Africa
Kedibone Yvonne Modika
Meat Science and Technology Unit, Agricultural Research Council-Animal production, Irene, Pretoria, South Africa
Casper Nyaradzai Kamutando
Department of Plant Production Sciences and Technologies, University of Zimbabwe, Harare, Zimbabwe
*Address all correspondence to: mamphogorot@arc.agric.za
1. Introduction
The global population is projected to surpass 9 billion by the year 2050, creating food security challenges, especially in developing nations. Furthermore, the upsurge in economic growth has led to a higher need for livestock products, resulting in the livestock sector facing the challenge of producing more with inadequate resources. Still, the livestock industry is rapidly expanding in the agriculture sector and accounts for approximately 40% of the total value of agricultural production worldwide, providing sustenance and food security for nearly 1.3 billion individuals [1], with the average daily animal protein consumption in developed countries on average above 65% of the total protein intake [2].
The expansion of population growth poses issues regarding optimizing resource use to produce food for humans efficiently; effects of land conversion and more intensified use on conservation of environmental services and biodiversity; effects of ruminant methane emissions on climate change; and impacts of rising temperatures due to climate change on animal production. Livestock offer a significant source of disposable income for underprivileged and marginalized communities in developing countries, and they serve as a key tool in combating poverty in rural areas [3, 4, 5]. Livestock also offer draught power and manure, which can be used as fuel and fertilizer, in addition to serving as a valuable source of income and nutrition. Livestock businesses can also provide animal assets that are immune to inflation for insurance and financing purposes [6, 7].
In order to meet the growing demand of population, livestock sectors of different types resorted to various techniques to increase their production [2]. These techniques are set to establish intensive and semi-intensive farming systems aiming at accelerating animal growth, preventing diseases, enhancing feed conversion efficiency, and optimizing reproduction rates. However, this leads to a greater need to ensure that animal welfare concerns are properly taken into account [8]. Significant advancements have been made in this area over the last nine decades, primarily due to enhancements in genetic selection, health status, nutrition, and the utilization of antibiotics and growth promoters. This advancement led to the benefits of increased livestock resulting in an approximately 18% increase in the overall growth performance [9]. Nevertheless, the use of antibiotics and growth promotants has raised concerns regarding antibiotic-resistant bacteria, an increase in foodborne allergies, and harmful effects on the environment like agricultural runoff [10, 11, 12]. Additionally, there is a growing concern about the impact of antibiotics and growth promotants on human health [7]. To that end, researchers have been exploring different ways to improve the quantity and quality of farm animals and their products. One such potential option is the supplementation of probiotics, as single or mixed strains, to the feeding regime of livestock.
Probiotics are defined as living microbial supplements that beneficially impact the host by enhancing its intestinal microbial composition [13]. In order for a microorganism to be considered probiotic, it should be nonpathogenic, able to give a viable cell count, positively impact the host’s health, and improve intestinal function. The most commonly used probiotics includes; Lactobacillus acidophilus, Lactobacillus plantarum, Lactobacillus helveticus, Lactobacillus salivarius, Bifidobacterium spp., and other probiotic fungi such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Saccharomyces boulardii [14, 15]. Copious topical research has demonstrated that supplementing probiotics in animal feed can positively alter the gut microbiota, leading to reductions in pathogen shedding and disease symptoms, as well as enhancements in gut immunity, disease resistance, and overall health [16, 17]. Furthermore, probiotics can reduce foodborne pathogens like Campylobacter, Clostridium perfringens, Escherichia coli, Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella, and Staphylococcus aureus through their antagonistic effect [18, 19, 20, 21]. This chapter, therefore, serves to highlight the beneficial effect of probiotics, either as feed additives or supplements, and their effect on animal health, nutrition, growth and productivity, and product quality. The chapter also explores the mode of action of probiotics in an in-vitro animal feeding model.
The gastrointestinal tract (GIT) of animals encompasses a diverse microbial population [22], with maximal populations in regions where the pH is close to neutral [22, 23]. Such regions encompass the pre-gastric rumen and the post-gastric caecum of ruminants, including horses, pigs and chickens. Depending on whether the animal is a ruminant or a monogastric animal, the GIT can harbor up to numerous 1000 distinctive microbial species, including bacteria, archaea, fungi, and protozoa [24]. Most gut bacteria belong to two main groups, Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes, which account for approximately 99% of the total microbiota in the bovine rumen [25]. However, species from the phyla Actinobacteria and Proteobacteria are also present [26, 27], constituting 96% microbial species in the rumen of sheep [24]. The indigenous gut microbiota plays an important role in animals’ overall health, growth and development, and productivity by enhancing immune system responses and development and facilitating nutrient extraction from the diet [28]. The latter is demonstrated in ruminants, where the gut microbiome provides approximately 70% of their daily energy needs [29]. This percentage is mostly derived from the fermentation of carbohydrates by microorganisms, which releases volatile fatty acids that are absorbed and used as a source of energy. Additionally, after leaving the rumen and digesting in the small intestine, the microbial populations themselves can be utilized as a source of protein [30].
There is indirect contact between immunomodulatory cells located in the lamina propria and intestinal epithelial cells located in the lumen [31, 32]. The microbiota and immune cells are separated by an intestinal epithelium that has two necessary functions. The primary function is to physically segregate any foreign substances or microbes from the host immune cells, and the second function is triggering an immunological response by signaling immune cells, which, in turn, invokes an immune response [33]. As a result, the relationship between the host’s health and the gut microbiota is complex, involving interactions between the innate immune system, epithelium, and resident commensal bacteria. Sustaining a diverse microbiota is valuable to the animal’s welfare [34]. An imbalanced microbiota in which the proportion of pathogenic to beneficial commensal bacteria is higher impairs gut health and, in turn, an animal’s growth, behavior (including social interaction, feeding, and stress response), and general health [35]. Diet, host genetics, and environmental factors are a few of the elements known to affect the microbiota’s richness and diversification [36]. The connection between these three determinants is complex, contingent on the circumstances, as one element may be more prominent than the other. For example, the GIT of a neonatal animal is initially sterile but quickly becomes colonized by microbial populations from the mother and environment [37, 38].
Modern breeding practices, which include artificial conditions and feeding, induce stress and can alter the microflora, which compromises the animal’s ability to fight off infection [39]. Therefore, the purpose of the probiotic approach is to repair the deficiencies in the microflora and enhance the animal’s immunity against disease. Such a supplement does not run the risk of introducing any foreign substances into the animal’s internal environment, nor does it contaminate the carcass and introduce dangerous chemicals into the food chain. Currently, farmers give probiotic feed supplements to both ruminants and poultry. Most probiotics consist of gram-positive bacteria, although gram-negative bacteria, yeast, and fungi are also consumed as feed additives and have beneficial effects on animal health. Probiotics also assist in enhancing healthy microflora growth [40]. Most probiotic products utilize one or a combination of several strains of bacteria. The most common probiotics utilized in livestock productions are: Bacillus, Bifidobacterium, Lactobacillus, Lactococcus, Streptococcus, Pediococcus, Streptococcus, and Saccharomyces (Table 1; [40, 59]).
4. Importance of probiotics in animal health and nutrition
Probiotics have been shown to improve animal performance, as evidenced by increased production of volatile fatty acids, increased nutrient digestibility, increased feed conversion efficiency, and stimulation of lactic acid-dependent protozoa [60]. They have been utilized to increase the efficiency of the feed usage, decreasing diarrhea in pigs and cattle and enhancing milk production. They have also been used to prevent Salmonella colonization of the intestinal tract of chickens [61]. In addition to its improved ability to regulate the immune system, Lvipan, a commercial in-feed probiotic, significantly lowers the abundance of Campylobacter spp. invading the gastrointestinal tract, thus enhancing hygiene in the poultry environment by suppressing pathogenic pollutants [62].
Roselli and colleagues [63] observed that feeding probiotics to weaned piglets and sows improves gut health through a balanced microbiota, enhancing immunological and physiological processes and preventing gastrointestinal disorders. The main responses were observed as immediate changes in the microbial ecosystem of the gastrointestinal tract, antagonizing the survival of neighboring pathogens while producing favorable fermentation products. This was confirmed by a related study by Hanczakowska et al. [64], who found that Enterococcus faecium, when fed as a feed additive to piglets, showed an inhibitory effect against Clostridium perfringens. Based on its richness, the microflora in animals’ gastrointestinal tracts can be thought of as an active metabolic organ. Therefore, in order to prevent disease invasion in animals with large population densities, it is crucial to maintain a functional gut flora [65]. In general, lactic acid bacteria with probiotic potential excrete organic acids that increase the acidity of the gastrointestinal tract environment, thus reducing the risk of pathogen infestation while regulating the microbial ecosystem within the gut habitat [66, 67].
A combination of probiotic supplements containing Lactobacillus strains drastically reduced Salmonella and Shigella in goat fecal samples [68]. Similarly, it has been observed that a complex mixture of lactobacilli isolated from the intestines of piglets improved the density of beneficial microorganisms in the gastrointestinal tract while condensing that of enteric pathogens such as E.coli [69]. Weaned pigs fed with lactic acid bacterial supplements in their basal diet showed significant improvements in digestion rate, growth, fecal microbial count, intestinal morphology, maintenance of gastrointestinal pH, and control of diarrhea [70, 71]. Feeding turkeys with dietary inclusion of lactobacilli increased their daily body weight and improved the hen’s ability to lay eggs [72]. In addition, bifidobacteria are an important component of the intestinal flora of chickens and have been shown to have a positive effect when administered to piglets and other mammals. These bacteria are an essential part of the intestinal flora of chickens. A commercial strain of Bifidobacterium bifidum was effective in treating broiler chickens infected with cellulitis. Furthermore, B. longum PCB 133, when administered to chickens, decreased the abundance of Campylobacter jejuni in poultry feces [73, 74]. B. adolescence Z25 also showed significant potential in the treatment of disorders of blood glucose levels, lipid metabolism, tissue damage, and dysbiosis of the gut microbiota of cattle [75]. Numerous species of Bifidobacterium have demonstrated the ability to reduce lactose intolerance by increasing β-galactosidase [76].
Conventionally, a number of probiotics have been employed as bioprotectors in meat products [76, 77]. They have been observed to release exopolysaccharides that have the ability to stop pathogenic pollutants from forming biofilms [78]. Lactobacillus strains have also attained commendable outcomes in raw chicken meat for safety against Listeria monocytogenes and Salmonella Enteriditis (Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica Serovar Enteritidis) [79]. Furthermore, mycotoxins are commonly detected in animal feed, posing a major health concern to livestock and having a tendency to make their way into the human food chain through meat and other dairy products [80]. Probiotics combat pathogens by producing different inhibitory substances, such as hydrogen peroxide, organic acids, and bacteriocins [81]. Additionally, they release metabolites including; acidophilin, aciolin, lactolin, and lactobacillin, which have inhibitory activities against different pathogenic microorganisms, including Shigella, Salmonella, Proteus, Pseudomonas, E.coli, Staphylococcus, Proteus, and Klebsiella [82]. Furthermore, probiotics can modulate the anti- and pro-inflammatory cytokine production to control inflammation in the host [83]. The administration of a lactobacilli-based probiotic preparation has somehow resulted in a better degree of detoxification in chickens against nephrotoxic, carcinogenic, and immunotoxic mycotoxin [84].
4.1 Probiotics increase digestibility
Probiotics accelerate an animal’s rate of digestion. In broilers, probiotics can improve the composition of cecal microorganisms and the way nutrients are absorbed [40]. According to Zhang and Kim [85], probiotics increase the ileal digestibility of key amino acids, increasing chicken body weight by 5%. Maas et al. [86] conducted experiments combining probiotics comprising of Bacillus amyloliquefaciens and the enzymes phytase and xylanase. They observed the impact of Bacillus amyloliquefaciens on digestion and metabolism, enhancing microbial interaction in the gut and increased absorption of calcium. Probiotics improve the host’s ability to digest food by boosting the activity of digestive enzymes in the GIT [86]. For instance, research in buffalo calves revealed that probiotic feed containing Lactobacillus acidophilus could guarantee higher dry matter intake, daily feed conversion, and specious digestibility of nutrients in comparison to the control group [87].
4.2 Probiotics improve the immune system
Probiotics can enhance immunity in the host in many ways. In several studies, probiotics have been verified to exhibit immune-stimulatory properties [88]. Probiotics encompassing Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Lactobacillus fermentum stimulated the gut T-cell immunity, as evidenced by the increased yield of CD3+, CD4+, and CD8+ T lymphocytes in the chickens GIT [89]. When Lactobacillus gasseri TL2919 and Lactobacillus jensenii TL2937 probiotics were fed to neonatal chicks, their small intestines expressed more CD3+, IL-2, and IFN-γ genes than the control group [90].
In neonatal chicks of three-day- and seven-day-old expression of CD3+, IL-2, and IFN-γ-genes were higher in the small intestine when provided with food with the probiotics Lactobacillus gasseri TL2919 and Lactobacillus jensenii TL2937 than in the absence of probiotics [90]. Chicken serum immunoglobulin levels can also be increased by probiotics. IgA and IgM serum levels were raised in chickens using a probiotic feed supplement comprising of Bacillus subtilis, Lactobacillus acidophilus, and Clostridium butyricum [87]. Probiotics can also boost serum immunoglobulin levels in chickens. A probiotic feed supplement containing Bacillus subtilis, Clostridium butyricum, and Lactobacillus acidophilus enhanced IgA and IgM serum levels in chickens [85].
Lactic Acid Bacteria (LAB) are capable of producing a wide variety of antimicrobial compounds that decrease pathogenic invasions. These comprise antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), such as organic acids, defensins, bacteriocins, diacetyl, and carbon dioxide [91]. It has been demonstrated that organic acids such as lactic acid, short-chain fatty acids, and formic acids can reduce potentially dangerous microorganisms that are significant to farm animals. According to Russo et al. [92], the primary outcome of glucose metabolism by Lactobacillus bacteria is the production of lactic acid. Organic acids target the bacterial cell wall, cytoplasmic membrane, and specific metabolic processes like replication and protein synthesis, causing the elimination and demise of harmful microorganisms [93].
Probiotics have the ability to impact the immune response of the host, including both innate and adaptive immunity. Various types of immune cells, including dendritic cells, granulocytes, macrophages, B lymphocytes, and T lymphocytes, participate in inflammation processes, which are controlled by cytokines such as IL-8, TNFα, IL-1β, IL-6, and IL-15 interleukins. Innate immunity offers natural physical and chemical defenses against pathogens for the host organism. For instance, intestinal epithelial cells (IECs) stop harmful microbes from spreading to cause infections [59].
Studies have shown that certain types of Lactobacillus bacteria, including Lactobacillus salivarius, Lactobacillus crispatus, Lactobacillus fermentum, and Lactobacillus gasseri, can positively influence the production of pro- and anti-inflammatory interleukins IL-6, IL-8, and IL-10 in animals to control inflammation and restore balance [94, 95, 96, 97]. Lactobacillus delbrueckii strain has the ability to promote anti-inflammatory qualities and reduce the levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-8. Aeromonas hydrophila-contaminated carp (Cyprinus carpio Huanghe var.) exhibited inflammatory reactions when given 1 × 107 CFU g/L of Lactobacillus delbrueckii probiotics, according to Zhang et al. [98]. The immune response that is adaptive relies on B cells and T cells, which trigger a targeted response to antigens. Adding 1 × 109 CFU/kg of Lactobacillus acidophilus LA5 to poultry feed increased the levels of CD8+, CD4+, and TCR1+ T cells in both the gastrointestinal tract and peripheral blood system of the birds [99].
A number of variables, including sex, nutrition, age, and genetics, can influence animal growth [100]. Among these, giving an animal a sufficient nutritional platform is crucial for its growth and development [101]. Enhancing the digestibility of feed is essential for optimizing growth in addition to providing the right amount of feed to the animal. According to a study by Meng et al. [101], probiotic supplements of Clostridium butyricum and Bacillus subtilis have been shown to improve the productivity of pigs. The improved nutritional digestibility in the probiotic-supplemented pigs as compared to the control group was ascribed to the improvement in growth performance. Likewise, pigs that were supplemented with a type of Bacillus culture showed increased nutritional absorption. In this instance, pigs supplemented with a probiotic demonstrated a 10% improvement in protein utilization after 4–5 months of feeding as compared to none supplemented fed pigs.
Probiotic supplements have also been shown to improve performance and weight gain in calves [102, 103] and broiler chicks [104, 105, 106, 107]. Turkeys supplemented with Bacillus amyloquefaciens exhibited higher feeding frequency and duration [108]. The precise process remains unknown, but more recent studies on the relationship between gut-brain axis and gut microbiome have suggested that there may be neurological alterations that cause the microbiota to influence farm animals’ eating habits [34]. According to Jørgensen et al. [109], probiotic supplementation is more effective for the pigs throughout the weaning and growth stages and less sensitive during the finishing stages [110]. It has also been demonstrated that adding dietary probiotics enhances the quantity and quality of milk in dairy cows and eggs produced by hens [111]. During feeding, the inclusion of Bacillus subtilis and Bacillus licheniformi greatly increased the milk’s protein and fat content in sheep [112]. In a similar vein, Aspergillus oryzae culture supplements raised the percentage of protein and dry fat-free solids in milk produced by dairy cows [113]. Xu et al. [114] observed an increase in milk yield of 37% in dairy cows supplemented with Lacticaseibacillus casei Zhang and Lactiplantibacillus platarum P-8 [52]. Addition of Bacillus licheniformis and Bacillus subtilis to the diet of laying hens resulted in a 3% increase in egg output and a 35% decrease in cholesterol levels in the yolk [115]. Furthermore, inclusion of 107 CFU/g of probiotic to laying hens’ diet reduced the negative impacts of heat stress through increased egg production, increased feed intake, and improved immunological response [116].
Meat quality is a predominant term describing characters persuading consumer purchasing decisions and eating experiences. Such characters include meat texture, juiciness, flavor, color, and water holding capacity (WHC) [117]. These attributes can be influenced by diet, sex, breed, and factors such as pre- and post-slaughter, climate change packaging, and also the storage of final meat products. Over the years, quite a number of studies have investigated the use of feed additives or supplements, such as probiotics, to improve meat quality. As a dietary supplement, probiotics exhibited positive effects on carcass weight and meat quality of lambs and goats (Table 2; [127, 128]). Such effects on meat quality include improved shelf life, color, tenderness, and healthy fatty acid profiles [119, 120, 122, 125, 126]. Sensory characteristics such as color are regarded as significant characteristics that influence consumer choice. This is because customers infer freshness and wholesomeness from meat based on color [129]. Meat’s color is related to the quantity of myoglobin pigment, pH level, oxidation of lipids, and pre- and post-mortem handling. Meat’s color is typically affected by myoglobin oxidation or reduction, which can lessen the meat’s color intensity.
Lactiplantibacillus plantarum P-8 and Lacticaseibacillus casei Zhang
1% level in diet 1.5 × 109 CFU/g
12 Sunit lamb
90 d
↑ intramuscular fat deposition ↑ muscle production (myogenesis) and meat quality ↓ MYOD1 gene expression in muscle ↓ cooking loss and shear force ↑ MAPK signaling pathway activity in muscle ↑body length, LT area
Mixture of B. subtilis, Bacillus licheniformis, and Lactiplantibacillus plantarum (ratio of 1:1:0.5)
10 g/kg feed
40 lambs (Chuanzhong blak)
70 d
↑ carcass yield ↑ abdominal fat% ↑ moisture and intramuscular fat in LT muscle ↑ mRNA expression of MyHC ↓ lightness, yellowness, shear force value and heneicosanoic acid in LT muscle ↑ meat quality (color and tenderness)
Lactiplantibacillus plantaru HM-10 and Lacticaseibacillus casei HM-09 and of
L. plantarum (1.5 × 109 CFU/g) and L. casei (1.5 × 109 CFU/g)
24 Sunit lambs
90 d
↑total antioxidative capacity (T-AOC) and catalase (CAT) activity of LT muscle ↓superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity ↓shear force values and lightness in LT) muscle ↑meat tenderness and flavor ~ pH, meat color (lightness, yellowness, redness) ~ cooking loss Alter the composition of meat volatile flavor compounds (nonanal, undecanal, 1-pentanol, 1-hexanol, and 2,3-octanedione) (observed by electric nose)
300/600 ppm of Lactobacillus/head (4 × 1010 CFU/g)
90 Anaolian Merino weanling lambs
70 d
↑daily weight gain, body weight gain, and feed conversion ratio ↑lightness in meat ~ redness and yellowness in meat ↑ meat pH value ↑fattening performance of lamb
Effect of probiotics on carcass and meat quality of small ruminants.
Abbreviations: CFU, colony-forming unit; ↑, increased; ↓, decreased; ~, not changed, LT, Longissimus thoracis; MyHC, myosin heavy chain; MAPK, mitogen-activated protein kinase; DM, dry matter; LAB, lactic acid bacteria.
According to a study by Nie et al. [127], giving lambs a combination of probiotics (i.e., B. subtilis, B. licheniformis, and L. plantarum) for 60 days enhanced the color of the meat by lowering myoglobin oxidation. Lactobacillus sp., Lactobacillus plantarum, and Lactobacillus casei are probiotics that have been demonstrated to improve both the color and flavor of meat [128]. Supplements including Lactobacillus and yeast (i.e., Saccharomyces cerevisiae) also enhanced the color of the meat [124]. The flavor and odor of meat are often caused by volatile chemicals; probiotic supplementation boosts antioxidant activity, which may lessen lipid oxidation and enhance the flavor of lamb meat [128].
Researchers have also looked into pH as a significant factor in meat color and its impact on lactic acid production and glycolysis throughout the post-mortem stages. pH typically decreases steadily from an initial value of roughly 7.2 to a final pH of roughly 5.6. However, pale, mushy, and exudative flesh develops when the pH level in carcasses drops quickly. In this instance, water that exudes from the flesh and myoglobin, a protein that is soluble in water, are lost, giving the meat a pale, bland appearance. The oxidation of muscle fiber affects the color and lightness of meat in addition to pH [128]. Meat loses color due to myoglobin oxidation [127]. Amidst the aforementioned details, scientists have lately investigated the possible application of probiotics to enhance the color and consistency of meat. For instance, Tian et al. [130] found that adding Limosilactobacillus reuteri to the diet changed the properties of muscle fibers and may even improve the color of the meat. Additionally, feeding L. reuteri increases the muscle’s ability to hold water, which greatly improves the softness of the meat. Meat’s ability to retain water is what gives it its softness and juiciness [130]. Probiotic-supplemented diets help maintain meat’s high pH, which increases meat’s WHC.
According to Lambe et al. [131], probiotic supplementation has a beneficial effect on intramuscular fat deposition and is positively correlated with marbling, softness, and meat flavor. The theory is that taking probiotic supplements stimulates the growth of adipocytes, which help store fat in the skeletal muscle. Probiotic supplements have been shown by Liu et al. [122] to improve muscle fiber density, which contributes to meat’s tenderness and suppleness. In a number of prior sensory studies involving a group of panelists, probiotic-supplemented meat was preferred by panelists over meat without probiotic supplements since probiotics were shown to improve meat’s color, flavor, and softness [118, 122]. Furthermore, the composition of volatile chemicals, which is connected to the quality characteristics of meat, may also change as a result of dietary probiotic supplementation [120, 122]. Probiotics also help to improve the polyunsaturated fatty acid profile of meat [132] and have antioxidant qualities [133]. Certain probiotic strains have the ability to create bacteriocins, which preserve meat’s beneficial organoleptic qualities and function as preventive measures against lipid oxidation. It is evident that using probiotics as a feed supplement enhances the quality of meat.
Probiotics exert their effectiveness in a variety of ways. Probiotics enhance animal health and productivity by inhibiting and managing intestinal infections. The basic mechanisms of action of probiotics includes (i) inhibition of pathogen adhesion; (ii) production of antimicrobial components; (iii) competitive exclusion of pathogenic microorganisms; (iv) enhancement of barrier function; (v) reduction of luminal pH; and, (vi) modulation of the immune system (Figure 1).
Figure 1.
Probiotic mode of action. These comprise six proposed mechanisms: (a) Inhibition of pathogen adhesion; (b) secretion of bacteriocins; (c) competitive exclusion of pathogenic microorganisms; (d) enhancement of barrier function; (e) reduction of luminal pH; and (f) modulation of the immune system.
Probiotics stimulate health conditions by inhibiting pathogenic bacteria. For example, Lactobacillus plantarum and Lactobacillus rhamnosus can prevent Escherichia coli from adhering to the intestinal tract of pigs [134]. Bacteria frequently interact with host cells subsequent to the release of chemical signals that influence bacterial organisms’ approaches through the techniques called quorum sensing [135, 136]. Probiotics inhibit the adhesion and translocation of bacteria by producing antimicrobial compounds. Enterococcus, Lactobacillus, Pediococcus, Bifidobacteria, Leuconostoc, Streptococcus, and Lactococcus can produce bacteriocins (proteins) that inhibit the growth of closely related bacterial organisms. These probiotic strains decrease the number of harmful microbes in GIT [137, 138]. The ribosome of many bacteria produces bacteriocins, which are bioactive antimicrobial peptides that adhere to pathogenic microbial cells and pierce their phospholipid membranes. According to van Zyl et al. [139], the fundamental pattern of the bacteriocin-mediated pathogen reaction encloses the cytoplasmic membrane penetration of pathogenic bacteria that results in the suppression of RNA and DNA synthesis and cell leakages.
Probiotics have the capacity to improve the intestinal communication system, which allows them to competitively exclude harmful microbes from the host intestine [50]. According to van Zyl et al. [139], this anti-pathogenic process, known as competitive exclusion, demonstrates that bacterial species tenaciously compete to connect to receptors at specific binding sites in the GIT. It may also combine the release of antimicrobial compounds with competing for available nutrients. Probiotics can shape the cell-to-cell communication of bacteria and host and maintain cellular uniformity by institution of the intestinal barrier function. Such consistency is accomplished through the modulation of cytoskeletal and tight junctional protein phosphorylation [50].
By reducing luminal pH, probiotic microbes can resist harmful pathogens. Bifidobacterium breve, a probiotic, can reduce luminal pH. In a lethal Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli O157:H7 animal experimental model, B. breve can cause acetic acid generation at greater concentrations [140]. Probiotics have the ability to modify the immune system, which enhances the host’s immunity. Probiotics that are eaten are essential for inducing a signal network and activating the mucosal immune system (MIS). Using various experimental techniques, the impact of several probiotic microorganisms on dendritic cells (DC) has been studied. Antigen-presenting dendritic cells perform vital roles in both innate and adaptive immunity. In addition to initiating primary immune responses that directly result in the formation of T- and B-cell responses, dendritic cells have the ability to recognize and respond to components of bacteria. With pathogen recognition patterns (PRPs) on their surface, which let them accurately identify the pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) on the bacterial organism, probiotics have the ability to directly control intestinal dendritic cells. By upregulating co-stimulatory molecular expression, this therapeutic technique promotes DC maturation. Cytokine release stimulates T-cell activation when the immune system becomes active [141, 142]. The type of T-cell responses, such as T helper cell polarization or T regulatory response, are determined by DC-originated signals. This information influences B-cell responses against pathogenicity [143].
It is eminent that by 2050 the global population is projected to exceed 9 billion people. The modern consumer consumes a high percentage of meat and animal products; therefore, by 2050, agricultural food production (especially animal production) may need to expand by 110% to meet the growing demand for animal products. In today’s conventional animal production system, the public is strongly against subtherapeutic-level antibiotics in food animal supplementation since it has led to the emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Probiotics commonly applied as direct-fed microbial (DFM) are live microorganisms incorporated in an animal’s diet as feed supplements. They usually convey beneficial properties predominantly through action in the GIT of the animal. Probiotic supplementation has been shown to improve animal performance and health by supporting gut health and nutrient utilization, thereby ultimately increasing animal performance and productivity and the quality of animal products such as meat and milk. In the outlook, research premised to: define or depict ideal probiotic microbial strains for specific animal types, determine the ideal dosages and mixes, and comprehend the web of interactions between probiotics and the gut microbiota, may aid in the development of more potent feed formulations for use in animal production.
The authors gratefully acknowledge and appreciate the financial support provided by the Department of Agriculture, Land Reform and Rural Development in collaboration with Agricultural Research Council of South Africa, project number API012403000048.
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Written By
Tshifhiwa Paris Mamphogoro, Goitsemang Makete, Kedibone Yvonne Modika and Casper Nyaradzai Kamutando
Submitted: 23 August 2024Reviewed: 19 September 2024Published: 08 November 2024
Open access peer-reviewed chapter
