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The thesis is important in its own right as a presentation of the results of a research endeavour. In addition, it is, perhaps, of particular significance to prehistorians who lack the means of studying past societies using historical sources. Prehistoric ceramic industries vary in their technologies, but usually much more in their styles. This study of the relationship between the changing fortunes of a specific ethnic group within a larger dominant one and the production and decoration of a single artifact type provides a range of models for the study of other artifacts produced in differing social and ethnic environments.

Table 4 The thesis is important in its own right as a presentation of the results of a research endeavour. In addition, it is, perhaps, of particular significance to prehistorians who lack the means of studying past societies using historical sources. Prehistoric ceramic industries vary in their technologies, but usually much more in their styles. This study of the relationship between the changing fortunes of a specific ethnic group within a larger dominant one and the production and decoration of a single artifact type provides a range of models for the study of other artifacts produced in differing social and ethnic environments.

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Lastly, 1 am indebted to James. Deetz for introducing me to the importance of Historical Archaeology in answering anthropological, as well as socially relevant questions of the past. It was Jim who first sparked my interest in Colono pipes and who encouraged me to wrestle with this topic over the ensuing years. He had an uncanny ability to enthrall his students with creative and often unorthodox perspectives on the American past and brought students into his life in a most welcome manner. This made him an inspiring teacher and a beloved friend. I will not forget this most gracious gift and it is to his memory that I dedicate this work.
Lastly, 1 am indebted to James. Deetz for introducing me to the importance of Historical Archaeology in answering anthropological, as well as socially relevant questions of the past. It was Jim who first sparked my interest in Colono pipes and who encouraged me to wrestle with this topic over the ensuing years. He had an uncanny ability to enthrall his students with creative and often unorthodox perspectives on the American past and brought students into his life in a most welcome manner. This made him an inspiring teacher and a beloved friend. I will not forget this most gracious gift and it is to his memory that I dedicate this work.
Figure 1 - Map of the Chesapeake region in the 17th Century. The colonial plantation system in North America had its beginnings the 17th-Century Mid-Atlantic (Figure 1). It is in this region of the Southeastern United States that the presence of African slaves is first documented. Originally a minor demographic presence in the region. toward the end of the century. African laborers would be the dominant labor supply in a developing system of slave labor. socially justified by a developing ideology of racially based inequality. At the onset of the Virginia experiment. racial categories were ambiguously reinforced by social and legal codes. As the century unfolded. however. the notion that race equaled social status came to the forefront of legal and social discourse in Colonial America. It is in the second half of the 17th Century that the seeds of a racially justified system of African slavery were sown. as legal codes increasingly stripped Africans in the Chesapeake of the ability to participate freely in general social discourse.
Figure 1 - Map of the Chesapeake region in the 17th Century. The colonial plantation system in North America had its beginnings the 17th-Century Mid-Atlantic (Figure 1). It is in this region of the Southeastern United States that the presence of African slaves is first documented. Originally a minor demographic presence in the region. toward the end of the century. African laborers would be the dominant labor supply in a developing system of slave labor. socially justified by a developing ideology of racially based inequality. At the onset of the Virginia experiment. racial categories were ambiguously reinforced by social and legal codes. As the century unfolded. however. the notion that race equaled social status came to the forefront of legal and social discourse in Colonial America. It is in the second half of the 17th Century that the seeds of a racially justified system of African slavery were sown. as legal codes increasingly stripped Africans in the Chesapeake of the ability to participate freely in general social discourse.
In answer to this general question, Westwood Winfree (1969) remarked that the assemblage of pipes published by Pawson from the Knowles Collection was very similar to some pipes that he himself had excavated at the Haddon site in King William County, Virginia. Based on the general assemblage at Haddon he considered it to be a pure Native American site. The similarity of the pipes from the two sites led him to conclude “that the pipes identified above were made by Indians, the shapes perhaps being influenced by kaolin pipes of European or colonial manufacture, but the decorations being Indian designs . . .” (Winfree 1969: 79). Figure 2 - Golono pipe formal typolagy proposed by Susan Henry (reprinted with permission of Historical Archaeology from Henry 1979: 22).
In answer to this general question, Westwood Winfree (1969) remarked that the assemblage of pipes published by Pawson from the Knowles Collection was very similar to some pipes that he himself had excavated at the Haddon site in King William County, Virginia. Based on the general assemblage at Haddon he considered it to be a pure Native American site. The similarity of the pipes from the two sites led him to conclude “that the pipes identified above were made by Indians, the shapes perhaps being influenced by kaolin pipes of European or colonial manufacture, but the decorations being Indian designs . . .” (Winfree 1969: 79). Figure 2 - Golono pipe formal typolagy proposed by Susan Henry (reprinted with permission of Historical Archaeology from Henry 1979: 22).
The idea that servants and slaves had free access to tobacco pipes in the 17th Century is also supported hy a documented exchange involving tobacco pipes in the 17th-Century Chesapeake. In 1638. in order to prepare himself properly before he fled his bondage, a servant named William Abraham attempted to trade several tobacco pipes with his master’s son for an Indian dictionary (Breen and innes 1980: 66). Assuming that a planter’s son would have no interest in making such a trade for inexpensive ball clay pipes. I think it highly probable that these were local decorated pipes. a potential curio to the planter’s son. Figure 4 - Comparison of the number of Colono pipes at Jamestown with tobacco prices, customs duties, and freight charges, 1698-1720 (after Henry 1979: 34).
The idea that servants and slaves had free access to tobacco pipes in the 17th Century is also supported hy a documented exchange involving tobacco pipes in the 17th-Century Chesapeake. In 1638. in order to prepare himself properly before he fled his bondage, a servant named William Abraham attempted to trade several tobacco pipes with his master’s son for an Indian dictionary (Breen and innes 1980: 66). Assuming that a planter’s son would have no interest in making such a trade for inexpensive ball clay pipes. I think it highly probable that these were local decorated pipes. a potential curio to the planter’s son. Figure 4 - Comparison of the number of Colono pipes at Jamestown with tobacco prices, customs duties, and freight charges, 1698-1720 (after Henry 1979: 34).
Figure 7 - Examples of decorated pipes from Mali (from Daget and Ligers 1962: 20). Note the use of incised rouletting, as well as stamped and incised patterns.
Figure 7 - Examples of decorated pipes from Mali (from Daget and Ligers 1962: 20). Note the use of incised rouletting, as well as stamped and incised patterns.
First. it is possible to generate an approximation of population trends in the 17th Century Chesapeake based on published demographic data (Feest 1978: Gomez 1998; Morgan 1975: Roundtree 1990; Wood 1989), (Figure 8). While the precise numbers represented in this chart are open to dispute, they do demonstrate that the Native American population declined drastically in the Tidewater Chesapeake, while that of the African population grew ever larger as the 17th Century unfolded. When compared with the temporal distribution of Colono pipes at Jamestown (Figure 4), we see a positive correlation with the rise in numbers of Africans and English settlers in the colony as a whole, and a negative correlation with the decline of Native Americans in the region. Figure 8 - Line chart showing estimated population growth of Native-Americans and Aftican-Americans in the 17th-Century Tidewater Chesapeake based upon published population estimates (after Feest 1978; Gomez 1998; Morgan 1975; Roundtree 1990; Waod 1989).
First. it is possible to generate an approximation of population trends in the 17th Century Chesapeake based on published demographic data (Feest 1978: Gomez 1998; Morgan 1975: Roundtree 1990; Wood 1989), (Figure 8). While the precise numbers represented in this chart are open to dispute, they do demonstrate that the Native American population declined drastically in the Tidewater Chesapeake, while that of the African population grew ever larger as the 17th Century unfolded. When compared with the temporal distribution of Colono pipes at Jamestown (Figure 4), we see a positive correlation with the rise in numbers of Africans and English settlers in the colony as a whole, and a negative correlation with the decline of Native Americans in the region. Figure 8 - Line chart showing estimated population growth of Native-Americans and Aftican-Americans in the 17th-Century Tidewater Chesapeake based upon published population estimates (after Feest 1978; Gomez 1998; Morgan 1975; Roundtree 1990; Waod 1989).
Figure 9 - Comparison of Handmade Colono pipe farms with examples from Mali (from Daget Ligers 1962).
Figure 9 - Comparison of Handmade Colono pipe farms with examples from Mali (from Daget Ligers 1962).
examine divergent stylistic patterns within identified artifact types, and to interpret the manner in which such divergences may have been significant within a particular social context.
examine divergent stylistic patterns within identified artifact types, and to interpret the manner in which such divergences may have been significant within a particular social context.
Figure 11 - Revised typology of handmade pipe forms (images of forms A and B are from Henry 1979: 22)
Figure 11 - Revised typology of handmade pipe forms (images of forms A and B are from Henry 1979: 22)
Figure 12 - Bar graph demonstrating the changing percentages of decorated and undecorated handmad Colono pipes at the study sites. Numbers within bars represent raw totals. Figure 13 - Bar graph demonstrating the changing percentages of decorated and undecorated Bal! Clay pipe at the study sites. Numbers within bars represent raw totals.
Figure 12 - Bar graph demonstrating the changing percentages of decorated and undecorated handmad Colono pipes at the study sites. Numbers within bars represent raw totals. Figure 13 - Bar graph demonstrating the changing percentages of decorated and undecorated Bal! Clay pipe at the study sites. Numbers within bars represent raw totals.
Figure 15 - Bar graph demonstrating the changing percentages of decorative layouts on handmade Colono pipes at the study sites. Layout 3 was not represented in the sample. Numbers within bars represent raw totals. li examination of changes in frequency of these decorutive layouts attests to significant stylistic ciiimge during the 17th Century. Figure 15
Figure 15 - Bar graph demonstrating the changing percentages of decorative layouts on handmade Colono pipes at the study sites. Layout 3 was not represented in the sample. Numbers within bars represent raw totals. li examination of changes in frequency of these decorutive layouts attests to significant stylistic ciiimge during the 17th Century. Figure 15
Figure 14 - Observed frequencies (black) and percentages (gray) of Decorative Layout by Manufacture Method. Notable associations are lightly shaded. Note the associations between handmade pipes and Layout 2, 4-6, and 7, and moldmade pipes and Layout 1 and 3.
Figure 14 - Observed frequencies (black) and percentages (gray) of Decorative Layout by Manufacture Method. Notable associations are lightly shaded. Note the associations between handmade pipes and Layout 2, 4-6, and 7, and moldmade pipes and Layout 1 and 3.
Fig 17 - Histograms of Colono-pipe bowl length and rim diameter (above), and angle of bowl midiine to stem (Angle 1), and rim to bowl-midline (Angle 2) (below).
Fig 17 - Histograms of Colono-pipe bowl length and rim diameter (above), and angle of bowl midiine to stem (Angle 1), and rim to bowl-midline (Angle 2) (below).
Figure 20 - Bar graph demonstrating the changing percentages of handmade Colono-pipe forms.
Figure 20 - Bar graph demonstrating the changing percentages of handmade Colono-pipe forms.
Figure 21 -- Observed frequencies (black) and percentages (gray) for Form vs Decorative Layout on handmade Colono pipes. Significant associations are lightly shaded. Note associations between Form © and Layout 4-6, Form D and Layouts 2, 4-6, and 7, Form E ind Layouts 2 and 4-6, Form F and Layout 2, and Form J ind Layout 7, igure 21 demonstrates observed frequencies and percentages for Decorative Layouts and Forms tend on handmade Colono pipes. The column percentages indicate that Form C and Layout 4-6, torm D and Layouts 2. 4-6, and 7, Form E and layouts 2 and 4-6. Form F and Layout 2. and Form J and Layout 7 are all strongly associated.
Figure 21 -- Observed frequencies (black) and percentages (gray) for Form vs Decorative Layout on handmade Colono pipes. Significant associations are lightly shaded. Note associations between Form © and Layout 4-6, Form D and Layouts 2, 4-6, and 7, Form E ind Layouts 2 and 4-6, Form F and Layout 2, and Form J ind Layout 7, igure 21 demonstrates observed frequencies and percentages for Decorative Layouts and Forms tend on handmade Colono pipes. The column percentages indicate that Form C and Layout 4-6, torm D and Layouts 2. 4-6, and 7, Form E and layouts 2 and 4-6. Form F and Layout 2. and Form J and Layout 7 are all strongly associated.
Figure 22 - Observed frequencies (black) and percentages (gray) of pipe types by period. The cells of dominant types are lightly shaded. Figure 22 reveals that in fact. the relationship between the rise of Form E and the decline of Form J. and the increase in Layout 2 and 4-6 and the decrease in Layout 7 are not directly correlated. Rather, when lack of decoration is accounted for it is apparent that for the first half of the 17th century. undecorated Form J pipes dominate. The dominant decorative type identified above (Layout 7) appears to be spread across other pipe forms. Layout 2. a dominant decorative type of the latter half of the 7th century also appears to be generally well distributed across pipe forms. reaching its maximum percentage (20%) in association with Form F in the third quarter of the century. The only significant association between Layout and Form identified above that does appear to gain a position of numerical dominance at any point in the 17th century. however. is that of Form E and Layout 4-6: rounded bowls with centrally placed decorative motifs.
Figure 22 - Observed frequencies (black) and percentages (gray) of pipe types by period. The cells of dominant types are lightly shaded. Figure 22 reveals that in fact. the relationship between the rise of Form E and the decline of Form J. and the increase in Layout 2 and 4-6 and the decrease in Layout 7 are not directly correlated. Rather, when lack of decoration is accounted for it is apparent that for the first half of the 17th century. undecorated Form J pipes dominate. The dominant decorative type identified above (Layout 7) appears to be spread across other pipe forms. Layout 2. a dominant decorative type of the latter half of the 7th century also appears to be generally well distributed across pipe forms. reaching its maximum percentage (20%) in association with Form F in the third quarter of the century. The only significant association between Layout and Form identified above that does appear to gain a position of numerical dominance at any point in the 17th century. however. is that of Form E and Layout 4-6: rounded bowls with centrally placed decorative motifs.
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Historical ArchaeologyAfrican Diaspora Studies
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