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AN Lytras Status in Employment and Social Classes 20th 21st

Profile image of Ανδρέας ΛύτραςΑνδρέας Λύτρας

2025

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Abstract

Status in Employment and Social Classes (During the 20th and the 21st century) Theoretical Approaches and Empirical Data

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My special thanks go to Wout Ultee for supporting me in difficult times. Wout Ultee has been an inspiration for me from the very beginning and his brilliant ideas opened the horizon of this study. Wout helped me to make this little but great country my homeland, one that I definitely will miss in the future. I thank Anthony Heath for being such a wonderful host during my visit at Nuffield College, University of Oxford in 2004. I am also grateful for him for making the time in his busy schedule to share his expertise with me and guide me through British literature and datasets. This study has benefited from the contributions of others as well. I owe much to Jeroen Smits. I will always be grateful for his methodological comments on one of my papers and for the inspiring discussions during the RC 28 Tokyo meeting and thereafter. I also thank Ruud Luijkx for his statistical support and for his valuable comments on our paper. Most of the data I used in this study were harmonised by Harry Ganzeboom. I was delighted with his ideas on publication of surveys. He generously shared his datasets and I appreciated his inspiring and encouraging discussions about our paper, socio-political issues and especially about Deventer. I thank Colin Mills for being my supervisor during my traineeship at Nuffield College and for our stimulating discussions. I particularly want to thank Duncan Gallie for the use of his dataset and for the guidance he offered during my stay at Nuffield College. My colleagues at the ICS/Department of Sociology in Nijmegen have made my time productive and enjoyable. I learnt a great deal from our sociology seminars and discussions. I thank everyone who contributed to this learning. Paul de Graaf and Marcel Lubbers deserve special thanks for their contributions to my dissertation. I hope that Marcel and I will collaborate again in the future. I also want to mention my dearest colleagues and friends Vivian Meertens and Eva Jaspers for being with me through my ups and downs. I also want to thank everyone who gave me useful comments during the ICS Forum Days. I especially want to thank Ineke Maas for her brilliant comments on my research proposal in the very beginning of this study. I was the only one in my year group after two months in Nijmegen but I still enjoyed all of the ICS courses with my colleagues Gijs van Houten, Ingrid Doorten, Willem-Jan Verhoeven and Ruud van der Meulen. They all have my thanks for the exciting sociological and philosophical discussions. Gijs Weijters, Wouter van Gils and Stijn Ruiter were my undergraduate and graduate classmates in Nijmegen. I was honored to have them as my colleagues during this study as well. I hope to keep in touch and work together with them

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References (121)

  1. K. Marx, Theories of Surplus Value (Volume IV of Capital), Moscow, Progress Publishers, (1863), E- Book, https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1863/theories -surplus -value/add1. htm#s12d, [K. Marx, Theories of Surplus Value (Volume IV of Capital) , in Greek, (Θεωρίες για την Υπεραξία - τέταρτος τόμος του «Κεφαλαίου»-, Αθήνα, Σύγχρονη Εποχή, Μέρος Πρώτο, 1981), Athens, New Times, 1981, pp. 452-453].
  2. K. Marx, Theories of Surplus Value, ibid, https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/ 1863/theories -surplus -value/add1.htm#s12d, [K. Marx, Theories of Surplus Value, in Greek, ibid, pp. 460-461].
  3. K. Marx, Theories of Surplus Value, ibid, [K. Marx, Theories of Surplus Value, in Greek, ibid, pp. 455-458].
  4. K. Marx, Theories of Surplus Value, ibid, [K. Marx, Theories of Surplus Value, in Greek, ibid, p.
  5. The Increase of Employment (1991-2023), in Selected Countries (Thousands)
  6. Argentina (Urban Areas) 4,215.62 10,765.73 12,241.62 13,293.5
  7. Canada 12,857.37 17,244.29 18,942.28 20,170.91
  8. China 764,200 772,530 (2014) Cyprus 398.214 431.716 479.924 Egypt 14,703.3 (1993) 23,345.81 27,241 29,886.07
  9. India 282,423 (1994) 394,554.4 (2012) 406,349.8 471,885.7
  10. Korea (R.) 18,648.75 24,703.95 27,400.58 28,548.99 Mexico 30,534.1 46,359.44 53,309.31 58,858.62
  11. Spain 12,621.84 18,421.41 19,773.59 21,182.2 UK 26,206.9 29,305.25 32,164.54 33,013.94 USA 117,718 139,869.2 152,580.7 161,036.5 Source: ILO (2024), Employment by sex and status in employment (thousands) -Annual (Time period: 1948 - 2023), [Last updated: 22/12/2024 14:29:01, https://rshiny.ilo.org/dataexplorer17/?lang=en&id=EMP_TEMP_SEX_STE_NB_A].
  12. Part-time Wage-Earners (% in total employment), in Selected Countries Country/ Year 2005 2011 2017
  13. 8 Source: ILO (2018), Incidence of part-time employment by sex -Common definition (%), [Downloaded on SAT, 13 OCT 2018, 09:15 +0200, from ILOSTAT].
  14. BOX 2.2 Women and Men Part-timers (%), in Selected Countries Gender Men Women Country/Year 2001 2008 2001 2008
  15. Source: OECD (2013), Dataset: Incidence of Full Time, Part Time Employment, www.oecd.org. BOX 2.4 Women Employers in Selected Countries, 1993-2021 (%)
  16. *Source: A.N. Lytras (2016), Wage Labour in Social Organization, Athens, Papazissis Publishers (in Greek), p. 269
  17. **Source: A.N. Lytras (2024), The Bourgeois and their World. The social polarization in 21st century, Athens, Papazissis Publishers (in Greek), p. 312.
  18. Source: ILO (2024), Employment by sex and status in employment (thousands) -Annual (Time period: 1948 - 2023), [Last updated: 22/12/2024 14:29:01, https://rshiny.ilo.org/dataexplorer17/?lang=en&id=EMP_TEMP_SEX_STE_NB_A].
  19. In Australia, the data regard the years: 1991, 2011, 2021, and 2023.
  20. Source: ILO (2024), Employment by sex and status in employment (thousands) -Annual (Time period: 1948 - 2023), [Last updated: 22/12/2024 14:29:01, https://rshiny.ilo.org/dataexplorer17/?lang=en&id=EMP_TEMP_SEX_STE_NB_A].
  21. Source: ILO (2024), Employment by sex and status in employment (thousands) -Annual (Time period: 1948 - 2023), [Last updated: 22/12/2024 14:29:01, https://rshiny.ilo.org/dataexplorer17/?lang=en&id=EMP_TEMP_SEX_STE_NB_A].
  22. 3A.6 USA Graph 3A.6.1
  23. Source: ILO (2024), Employment by sex and status in employment (thousands) -Annual (Time period: 1948 - 2023), [Last updated: 22/12/2024 14:29:01, https://rshiny.ilo.org/dataexplorer17/?lang=en&id=EMP_TEMP_SEX_STE_NB_A].
  24. Source: ILO (2024), Employment by sex and status in employment (thousands) -Annual (Time period: 1948 - 2023), [Last updated: 22/12/2024 14:29:01, https://rshiny.ilo.org/dataexplorer17/?lang=en&id=EMP_TEMP_SEX_STE_NB_A].
  25. In Japan, the status of the employees is now a "pandemic" phenomenon, in employment. The evolution is impressive for its percentages. The employees are members of an obvious majority, in 1991. They represent the 78.64% in that year. They present a strong increase the next years. In the 2023, their percentage is the 90.05%.
  26. 62%, in 2023. Are going the "few" to be "fewer"? This is the prediction for Japan: The employers are going to be fewer, but richer. The extreme social polarization is here. We hope for another future.
  27. The own-account workers in Japan are the 5.97% of total employment, in 2023. They represent less than the half percentage (%) of 1991. This evolution accompanies the social polarization. The modern capitalism destroys systematically the petty-bourgeoisie.
  28. The contributing family workers represent now insignificant percentages. They were nearly the 8% of total employment, in 1991.
  29. Source: ILO (2024), Employment by sex and status in employment (thousands) -Annual (Time period: 1948 - 2023), [Last updated: 22/12/2024 14:29:01, https://rshiny.ilo.org/dataexplorer17/?lang=en&id=EMP_TEMP_SEX_STE_NB_A]. Contents of Appendix (2006-2018)
  30. Australia ................................................................................................................... ..... 131
  31. Canada .......................................................................................................................... 133
  32. Chile ....................................................................................................................... ...... 135
  33. China ............................................................................................................................. 137
  34. Cyprus ........................................................................................................................... 139
  35. Egypt ....................................................................................................................... ...... 141
  36. France ............................................................................................................... ............ 143
  37. Germany ........................................................................................................................ 145
  38. Greece ........................................................................................................................... 147
  39. Hungary ......................................................................................................................... 149
  40. Japan ............................................................................................................................. 151
  41. India .............................................................................................................................. 153
  42. Indonesia ....................................................................................................................... 155
  43. Italy ...............................................................................................................................
  44. S. Korea (Republic of Korea) ....................................................................................... 159
  45. Mexico ...................................................................................................................... .... 161
  46. Russia (Russian Federation) ............................................................................................ 163 UK ................................................................................................................................... 165 USA ................................................................................................................................. 167
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  49. A.N. Lytras, The Greek Society in the 21st Century, Athens, Papazissis, 2020 (in Greek).
  50. A.N. Lytras, The Democracy of our Social Future, Athens, Parateriterio, 2019 (in Greek).
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  54. Α.N. Lytras, "An Alternative for Combating Unemployment", Journal of Sociology and Social Work, 4 (2), 2016, pp. 59-71, [DOI: 10.15640/jssw.v4n2a7, URL: https://doi.org/10.15640/jssw.v4n2a7].
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  57. A.N. Lytras, Petty Bourgeois' Function and Organisation in Greece, Athens, Papazissis, 2010 (in Greek).
  58. A.N. Lytras, Political Strategy for Social Classes. Analytical Essays, Athens, Papazissis, 2008 (in Greek).
  59. A.N. Lytras, Analyses on Social Structure. Social policy and organization in the twenty-first century, Athens, Papazissis, 2007 (in Greek).
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