From edfa5549dd81a80ff04449df224617b41420d75a Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: NiallJoeMaher Date: Wed, 29 May 2024 09:39:17 +0100 Subject: [PATCH 1/2] Update RAG route to use LlamaParseReader for document loading --- src/app/api/rag/route.ts | 15 +++++++-------- 1 file changed, 7 insertions(+), 8 deletions(-) diff --git a/src/app/api/rag/route.ts b/src/app/api/rag/route.ts index 28a962d..2c83ab8 100644 --- a/src/app/api/rag/route.ts +++ b/src/app/api/rag/route.ts @@ -1,5 +1,5 @@ -import fs from "node:fs/promises"; -import { Document, VectorStoreIndex, OpenAI, Settings } from "llamaindex"; +import { VectorStoreIndex, OpenAI, Settings } from "llamaindex"; +import { LlamaParseReader } from "llamaindex/readers/LlamaParseReader"; Settings.llm = new OpenAI({ model: "gpt-3.5-turbo" }); @@ -10,15 +10,14 @@ export async function POST(request: Request) { throw new Error("Input is required"); } - // Load essay from abramov.txt in Node - const path = "./node_modules/llamaindex/examples/abramov.txt"; + const reader = new LlamaParseReader({ resultType: "markdown" }); - const essay = await fs.readFile(path, "utf-8"); - // // Create Document object with essay - const document = new Document({ text: essay, id_: path }); + const documents = await reader.loadData( + "./src/data/writing-effectively.pdf" + ); // Split text and create embeddings. Store them in a VectorStoreIndex - const index = await VectorStoreIndex.fromDocuments([document]); + const index = await VectorStoreIndex.fromDocuments(documents); // Query engine convenience function // This convenience function combines several components: From de908133812ee86cd8b4d03657c95cbc6156697c Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: NiallJoeMaher Date: Wed, 29 May 2024 10:55:49 +0100 Subject: [PATCH 2/2] Update RAG route to use routerQueryEngine --- src/app/api/rag/route.ts | 62 ++- src/data/ireland.txt | 812 ++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ src/data/irish-language.txt | 825 +++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ src/data/irish-mythology.txt | 316 ++++++++++++++ 4 files changed, 1998 insertions(+), 17 deletions(-) create mode 100644 src/data/ireland.txt create mode 100644 src/data/irish-language.txt create mode 100644 src/data/irish-mythology.txt diff --git a/src/app/api/rag/route.ts b/src/app/api/rag/route.ts index 2c83ab8..d0e71bf 100644 --- a/src/app/api/rag/route.ts +++ b/src/app/api/rag/route.ts @@ -1,37 +1,65 @@ -import { VectorStoreIndex, OpenAI, Settings } from "llamaindex"; -import { LlamaParseReader } from "llamaindex/readers/LlamaParseReader"; +import { + VectorStoreIndex, + OpenAI, + Settings, + RouterQueryEngine, +} from "llamaindex"; +import { TextFileReader } from "llamaindex/readers/TextFileReader"; Settings.llm = new OpenAI({ model: "gpt-3.5-turbo" }); export async function POST(request: Request) { try { const { query } = await request.json(); + if (!query) { throw new Error("Input is required"); } - const reader = new LlamaParseReader({ resultType: "markdown" }); - - const documents = await reader.loadData( - "./src/data/writing-effectively.pdf" + // Get data from multiple files + const irelandDoc = await new TextFileReader().loadData( + "./src/data/ireland.txt" + ); + const irishLangDoc = await new TextFileReader().loadData( + "./src/data/irish-language.txt" + ); + const irishMythDoc = await new TextFileReader().loadData( + "./src/data/irish-mythology.txt" ); - // Split text and create embeddings. Store them in a VectorStoreIndex - const index = await VectorStoreIndex.fromDocuments(documents); + // Create seperate VectorStoreIndex from documents + const irelandIndex = await VectorStoreIndex.fromDocuments(irelandDoc); + const irishLangIndex = await VectorStoreIndex.fromDocuments(irishLangDoc); + const irishMythIndex = await VectorStoreIndex.fromDocuments(irishMythDoc); // Query engine convenience function - // This convenience function combines several components: - // - Retriever - // - Postprocessing - // - Synthesizer - const queryEngine = index.asQueryEngine(); - const { response } = await queryEngine.query({ - query, + const irelandQueryEngine = irelandIndex.asQueryEngine(); + const irishLangQueryEngine = irishLangIndex.asQueryEngine(); + const irishMythQueryEngine = irishMythIndex.asQueryEngine(); + + const routerQueryEngine = await RouterQueryEngine.fromDefaults({ + queryEngineTools: [ + { + queryEngine: irelandQueryEngine, + description: "Information realted to the country of Ireland", + }, + { + queryEngine: irishLangQueryEngine, + description: "Information about the Irish language", + }, + { + queryEngine: irishMythQueryEngine, + description: + "Information about Irish mythology and folklore or stories", + }, + ], }); + const { response } = await routerQueryEngine.query({ query }); + return Response.json({ response }); - } catch (err) { - console.log(err); + } catch (e) { + console.log(e); return new Response(`Something went wrong.`, { status: 400 }); } } diff --git a/src/data/ireland.txt b/src/data/ireland.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..821aeab --- /dev/null +++ b/src/data/ireland.txt @@ -0,0 +1,812 @@ +Ireland +| + +- *Éire* ([Irish](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language "Irish language")) +- **Airlann**  ([Ulster Scots](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulster_Scots_dialect "Ulster Scots dialect")) + + | +| [![Satellite image of Ireland](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Ireland_%28MODIS%29.jpg/260px-Ireland_%28MODIS%29.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ireland_(MODIS).jpg) + +[Satellite image](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satellite_imagery "Satellite imagery"), October 2010 + + | +| [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Map_of_Ireland_in_Europe.svg/260px-Map_of_Ireland_in_Europe.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_Ireland_in_Europe.svg) + +Location of Ireland (dark green) + +in [Europe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europe "Europe") (dark grey) + + | +| Geography | +| Location | Northwestern Europe | +| Coordinates | ![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/WMA_button2b.png/17px-WMA_button2b.png "Show location on an interactive map")[53°26′58"N 07°30′11"W](https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Ireland¶ms=53_26_58_N_07_30_11_W_type:country_scale:2500000) | +| Adjacent to | Atlantic Ocean | +| Area | 84,421 km^2^ (32,595 sq mi)^[[1]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-irlgeog-1)^ | +| [Area rank](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_islands_by_area "List of islands by area") | 20th^[[2]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-royle-2)^ | +| Coastline | 7,527 km (4677.1 mi)^[[3]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-3)^^[[4]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-4)^ | +| Highest elevation | 1,041 m (3415 ft) | +| Highest point | [Carrauntoohil](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrauntoohil "Carrauntoohil") | +| Administration | +| **[Republic of Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland "Republic of Ireland")** | +| Largest city | [Dublin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dublin "Dublin"), pop. 1,458,154 Metropolitan Area (2022)^[[5]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-5)^ | +| + +United Kingdom + + | +| [Country](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Countries_of_the_United_Kingdom "Countries of the United Kingdom") | [Northern Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Ireland "Northern Ireland") | +| Largest city | [Belfast](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belfast "Belfast"), pop. 671,559 Metropolitan Area (2011)^[[6]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-6)^ | +| Demographics | +| Demonym | Irish | +| Population | 7,185,600 (2023 estimate)^[[a]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#endnote_footnote_a)^^[[7]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-7)^ | +| [Population rank](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_islands_by_population "List of islands by population") | 19th | +| Pop. density | 82.2/km^2^ (212.9/sq mi) | +| Languages | + +- [English](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiberno-English "Hiberno-English") +- [Irish](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language "Irish language") +- [ISL](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Sign_Language "Irish Sign Language") +- [Ulster Scots](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulster_Scots_dialect "Ulster Scots dialect") +- [NISL](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Ireland_Sign_Language "Northern Ireland Sign Language") +- [Shelta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shelta "Shelta") + + | +| Ethnic groups | + +- 90.0% [White](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_people "White people") +- 2.8% [Asian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asian_people "Asian people") +- 1.2% [Black](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_people "Black people") +- 0.3% [Arab](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_people "Arab people") +- 1.2% other (inc. [Mixed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiracial_people "Multiracial people")) +- 4.5% not stated^[[8]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-8)^^[[9]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-9)^ + + | +| Additional information | +| [Time zone](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_zone "Time zone") | + +- [Greenwich Mean Time](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenwich_Mean_Time "Greenwich Mean Time") ([UTC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UTC%C2%B10 "UTC±0")) + + | +|  - Summer ([DST](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daylight_saving_time "Daylight saving time")) | + +- - [Irish Standard Time](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Standard_Time "Irish Standard Time") + - [British Summer Time](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Summer_Time "British Summer Time") + + ([UTC+1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UTC%2B1 "UTC+1")) + + | +| | +| [Patron saints](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patron_saint "Patron saint") | + +- [Saint Patrick](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Patrick "Saint Patrick") +- [Saint Brigid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brigid_of_Kildare "Brigid of Kildare") +- [Saint Colmcille](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columba "Columba") + + | +| + +1. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#ref_footnote_a)** Including surrounding islands. + + | + +**Ireland** ([/ˈaɪərlənd/](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English "Help:IPA/English") [](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/3c/En-us-Ireland.ogg/En-us-Ireland.ogg.mp3 "Play audio")^[ⓘ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:En-us-Ireland.ogg "File:En-us-Ireland.ogg")^ [*IRE-lənd*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key "Help:Pronunciation respelling key"); [Irish](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language "Irish language"): *[Éire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89ire "Éire")* [[ˈeːɾʲə]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Irish "Help:IPA/Irish") [](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/e0/Eire_pronunciation.ogg/Eire_pronunciation.ogg.mp3 "Play audio")^[ⓘ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Eire_pronunciation.ogg "File:Eire pronunciation.ogg")^; [Ulster-Scots](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulster_Scots_dialect "Ulster Scots dialect"): *Airlann* [[ˈɑːrlən]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA "Help:IPA")) is an island in the [North Atlantic Ocean](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean "Atlantic Ocean"), in [north-western Europe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northwestern_Europe "Northwestern Europe"). It is separated from [Great Britain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Britain "Great Britain") to its east by the [North Channel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Channel_(Great_Britain_and_Ireland) "North Channel (Great Britain and Ireland)"), the [Irish Sea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Sea "Irish Sea"), and [St George's Channel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_George%27s_Channel "St George's Channel"). Ireland is the [second-largest island](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_islands_of_the_British_Isles "List of islands of the British Isles") of the [British Isles](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Isles "British Isles"), the [third-largest](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_European_islands_by_area "List of European islands by area") in Europe, and the [twentieth-largest](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_islands_by_area "List of islands by area") in the world.^[[10]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-unep-10)^ + +Geopolitically, the island of Ireland is divided between the [Republic of Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland "Republic of Ireland") (officially [named Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Names_of_the_Irish_state "Names of the Irish state")), an independent state covering five-sixths of the island, and [Northern Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Ireland "Northern Ireland"), which is part of the [United Kingdom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom "United Kingdom"). As of 2022, the [population of the entire island](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_population_analysis "Irish population analysis") is just over 7 million, with 5.1 million living in the Republic of Ireland and 1.9 million in Northern Ireland, ranking it the [second-most populous island in Europe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_European_islands_by_population "List of European islands by population") after Great Britain.^[[11]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-2022population-11)^ + +The [geography of Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_of_Ireland "Geography of Ireland") comprises relatively low-lying mountains surrounding a central plain, with [several navigable rivers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rivers_of_Ireland "Rivers of Ireland") extending inland. Its lush vegetation is a product of its mild but changeable climate which is free of extremes in temperature. Much of Ireland was woodland until the end of the [Middle Ages](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ages "Middle Ages"). Today, woodland makes up about 10% of the island, compared with a European average of over 33%,^[[12]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-forest-12)^ with most of it being non-native conifer plantations.^[[13]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-forest2-13)^^[[14]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-forest3-14)^ The [Irish climate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_of_Ireland "Climate of Ireland") is influenced by the Atlantic Ocean and thus very moderate,^[[15]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-15)^ and winters are milder than expected for such a northerly area, although summers are cooler than those in continental Europe. Rainfall and cloud cover are abundant. + +[Gaelic Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaelic_Ireland "Gaelic Ireland") had emerged by the 1st century AD. The island was [Christianised](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianization "Christianization") from the 5th century onwards. During this period Ireland was divided into many petty kingships under provincial kingships (Cúige "fifth" of the traditional provinces) vying for dominance and the title of [High King of Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_King_of_Ireland "High King of Ireland"). In the late 8th century to early 11th century AD [Viking](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viking "Viking") raids and settlement took place culminating in the [Battle of Clontarf](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Clontarf "Battle of Clontarf") on 23 April 1014 which resulted in the ending of Viking power in Ireland. Following the 12th century [Anglo-Norman invasion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Norman_invasion_of_Ireland "Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland"), [England](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_England "Kingdom of England") claimed sovereignty. However, English rule did not extend over the whole island until the 16th--17th century [Tudor conquest](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tudor_conquest_of_Ireland "Tudor conquest of Ireland"), which led to [colonisation by settlers from Britain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plantations_of_Ireland "Plantations of Ireland"). In the 1690s, a system of [Protestant English rule](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestant_Ascendancy "Protestant Ascendancy") was designed to materially disadvantage the [Catholic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic_Church "Catholic Church") majority and Protestant [dissenters](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissenter "Dissenter"), and was extended during the 18th century. With the [Acts of Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acts_of_Union_1800 "Acts of Union 1800") in 1801, Ireland became [a part of](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Countries_of_the_United_Kingdom "Countries of the United Kingdom") the [United Kingdom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland "United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland"). A [war of independence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_War_of_Independence "Irish War of Independence") in the early 20th century was followed by the [partition of the island](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partition_of_Ireland "Partition of Ireland"), leading to the creation of the [Irish Free State](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Free_State "Irish Free State"), which became increasingly sovereign over the following decades until it declared a republic in 1948 ( Republic of Ireland Act, 1948) and Northern Ireland, which remained a part of the United Kingdom. Northern Ireland saw much [civil unrest from the late 1960s until the 1990s](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Troubles "The Troubles"). This subsided following the [Good Friday Agreement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good_Friday_Agreement "Good Friday Agreement") in 1998. In 1973, both the Republic of Ireland and the United Kingdom, with Northern Ireland as part of it, joined the [European Economic Community](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Economic_Community "European Economic Community"). Following a referendum vote in 2016, the United Kingdom, Northern Ireland included, left the [European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union "European Union") (EU) in 2020. Northern Ireland was granted a limited special status and allowed to operate within the EU single market for goods without being in the European Union;^[[16]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-16)^ the economy has subsequently grown faster than the rest of the UK.^[[17]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-17)^ + +[Irish culture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_Ireland "Culture of Ireland") has had a significant influence on other cultures, especially in the field of [literature](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_literature "Irish literature"). Alongside mainstream [Western culture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_culture "Western culture"), a strong indigenous culture exists, as expressed through [Gaelic games](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaelic_games "Gaelic games"), [Irish music](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Ireland "Music of Ireland"), [Irish language](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language "Irish language"), and [Irish dance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_dance "Irish dance"). The island's culture shares many features with that of Great Britain, including the English language, and sports such as [association football](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_football "Association football"), [rugby](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rugby_union "Rugby union"), [horse racing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horse_racing "Horse racing"), [golf](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golf "Golf"), and [boxing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boxing "Boxing"). + +Etymology +--------- + +The names *Ireland* and *Éire* derive from [Old Irish](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Irish "Old Irish") *[Ériu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89riu "Ériu")*, a goddess in [Irish mythology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology "Irish mythology") first recorded in the ninth century. The etymology of Ériu is disputed but may derive from the [Proto-Indo-European](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Indo-European "Proto-Indo-European") root **h2uer*, referring to flowing water.^[[18]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-18)^ + +History +------- + +Main article: [History of Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Ireland "History of Ireland") + +### Prehistoric Ireland + +Main article: [Prehistoric Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prehistoric_Ireland "Prehistoric Ireland") + +During the [last glacial period](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Last_glacial_period "Last glacial period"), and until about 16,000 BC, much of Ireland was periodically covered in ice.^[[19]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-National_Museum-19)^ The [relative sea level](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relative_sea_level "Relative sea level") was less than 50m lower resulting in an [ice bridge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_bridge "Ice bridge") (but not a [land bridge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_bridge "Land bridge")) forming between Ireland and Great Britain.^[[20]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-Marine_Geology-20)^ By 14,000 BC this ice bridge existed only between Northern Ireland and Scotland and by 12,000 BC Ireland was completely separated from Great Britain.^[[21]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-drowning-21)^ Later, around 6,100 BC, Great Britain became separated from continental Europe.^[[22]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-22)^ Until recently, the earliest evidence of human activity in Ireland was dated at 12,500 years ago, demonstrated by a butchered bear bone found in a cave in [County Clare](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_Clare "County Clare").^[[23]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-BBC2016-03-21-23)^ Since 2021, the earliest evidence of human activity in Ireland is dated to 33,000 years ago.^[[24]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-24)^ + +By about 8,000 BC, more sustained occupation of the island has been shown, with evidence for [Mesolithic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesolithic "Mesolithic") communities around the island.^[[25]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-25)^ + +Some time before 4,000 BC, [Neolithic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neolithic "Neolithic") settlers introduced cereal [cultivars](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultivar "Cultivar"), domesticated animals such as cattle and sheep, built large timber buildings, and stone monuments.^[[26]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-26)^^[[19]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-National_Museum-19)^ The earliest evidence for farming in Ireland or Great Britain is from [Ferriter's Cove](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferriter%27s_Cove "Ferriter's Cove"), [County Kerry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_Kerry "County Kerry"), where a flint knife, cattle bones and a sheep's tooth were [carbon-dated](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiocarbon_dating "Radiocarbon dating") to c. 4,350 BC.^[[27]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-Ireland's_DNA-27)^ Field systems were developed in different parts of Ireland, including at the *[Céide Fields](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A9ide_Fields "Céide Fields")*, that has been preserved beneath a blanket of peat in present-day [Tyrawley](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyrawley "Tyrawley"). An extensive [field system](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_system "Field system"), arguably the oldest in the world,^[[28]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-28)^ consisted of small divisions separated by [dry-stone walls](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dry-stone_wall "Dry-stone wall"). The fields were farmed for several centuries between 3,500 BC and 3,000 BC. [Wheat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheat "Wheat") and [barley](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barley "Barley") were the principal crops.^[[19]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-National_Museum-19)^ + +The [Bronze Age](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze_Age "Bronze Age") began around 2,500 BC, with technology changing people's everyday lives during this period through innovations such as the wheel, harnessing [oxen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxen "Oxen"), [weaving textiles](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weaving "Weaving"), brewing [alcohol](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol_(drug) "Alcohol (drug)") and [metalworking](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metalworking "Metalworking"),^[[19]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-National_Museum-19)^ which produced new weapons and tools, along with fine gold decoration and jewellery, such as [brooches](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brooch "Brooch") and [torcs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torc "Torc"). + +#### Emergence of Celtic Ireland + +How and when the island became Celtic has been debated for close to a century, with the migrations of the Celts being one of the more enduring themes of archaeological and linguistic studies. The most recent genetic research strongly associates the spread of Indo-European languages (including Celtic) through Western Europe with a people bringing a composite [Beaker culture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beaker_culture "Beaker culture"), with its arrival in Britain and Ireland dated to around the middle of the third millennium BC.^[[29]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-Reich_2018_115-29)^ According to [John T. Koch](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_T._Koch "John T. Koch") and others, Ireland in the Late Bronze Age was part of a maritime trading-network culture called the [Atlantic Bronze Age](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_Bronze_Age "Atlantic Bronze Age") that also included Britain, western France and Iberia, and that this is where [Celtic languages](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic_languages "Celtic languages") developed.^[[30]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-Koch-30)^^[[31]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-Koch2009-31)^^[[32]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-32)^^[[33]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-33)^ This contrasts with the traditional view that their origin lies in mainland Europe with the [Hallstatt culture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hallstatt_culture "Hallstatt culture").^[[34]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-34)^ + +[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Uragh_Stone_Circle.jpg/170px-Uragh_Stone_Circle.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Uragh_Stone_Circle.jpg) + +[The Uragh Stone Circle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uragh_Stone_Circle "Uragh Stone Circle"), a [Neolithic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neolithic "Neolithic") [stone circle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stone_circle "Stone circle") in [Tuosist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuosist "Tuosist"), close to Gleninchaquin Park, [County Kerry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_Kerry "County Kerry") + +The long-standing traditional view is that the Celtic language, [Ogham](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ogham "Ogham") script and culture were brought to Ireland by waves of invading or migrating [Celts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celts "Celts") from mainland Europe. This theory draws on the *[Lebor Gabála Érenn](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lebor_Gab%C3%A1la_%C3%89renn "Lebor Gabála Érenn")*, a medieval Christian pseudo-history of Ireland, along with the presence of Celtic culture, language and artefacts found in Ireland such as Celtic bronze spears, shields, torcs and other finely crafted Celtic associated possessions. The theory holds that there were four separate Celtic invasions of Ireland. The [Priteni](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priteni "Priteni") were said to be the first, followed by the [Belgae](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgae "Belgae") from northern Gaul and Britain. Later, Laighin tribes from Armorica (present-day Brittany) were said to have invaded Ireland and Britain more or less simultaneously. Lastly, the [Milesians](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milesians_(Irish) "Milesians (Irish)") ([Gaels](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaels "Gaels")) were said to have reached Ireland from either northern Iberia or southern Gaul.^[[35]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-35)^ It was claimed that a second wave named the Euerni, belonging to the Belgae people of northern Gaul, began arriving about the sixth century BC. They were said to have given their name to the island.^[[36]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-36)^^[[37]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-37)^ + +The theory was advanced in part because of the lack of archaeological evidence for large-scale Celtic immigration, though it is accepted that such movements are notoriously difficult to identify. Historical linguists are skeptical that this method alone could account for the absorption of Celtic language, with some saying that an assumed processual view of Celtic linguistic formation is 'an especially hazardous exercise'.^[[38]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-38)^^[[39]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-39)^ Genetic lineage investigation into the area of Celtic migration to Ireland has led to findings that showed no significant differences in [mitochondrial DNA](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitochondrial_DNA "Mitochondrial DNA") between Ireland and large areas of continental Europe, in contrast to parts of the Y-chromosome pattern. When taking both into account, a study concluded that modern Celtic speakers in Ireland could be thought of as European "Atlantic Celts" showing a shared ancestry throughout the Atlantic zone from northern Iberia to western Scandinavia rather than substantially central European.^[[40]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-40)^ In 2012, research showed that the occurrence of genetic markers for the earliest farmers was almost eliminated by Beaker-culture immigrants: they carried what was then a new Y-chromosome R1b marker, believed to have originated in Iberia about 2,500 BC. The prevalence amongst modern Irish men of this mutation is a remarkable 84%, the highest in the world, and closely matched in other populations along the Atlantic fringes down to Spain. A similar genetic replacement happened with lineages in mitochondrial DNA.^[[27]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-Ireland's_DNA-27)^^[[41]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-41)^ This conclusion is supported by recent research carried out by the geneticist [David Reich](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Reich_(geneticist) "David Reich (geneticist)"), who says: "British and Irish skeletons from the Bronze Age that followed the Beaker period had at most 10 per cent ancestry from the first farmers of these islands, with other 90 per cent from people like those associated with the Bell Beaker culture in the Netherlands." He suggests that it was Beaker users who introduced an Indo-European language, represented here by Celtic (i.e. a new language and culture introduced directly by migration and genetic replacement).^[[29]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-Reich_2018_115-29)^ + +### Late antiquity and early medieval times + +Main article: [History of Ireland (800--1169)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Ireland_(800%E2%80%931169) "History of Ireland (800--1169)") + +[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Dalriada.png/170px-Dalriada.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dalriada.png) + +The [Scoti](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scoti "Scoti") were [Gaelic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaels "Gaels")-speaking people from Ireland who settled in western Scotland in the 6th century or before. + +The earliest written records of Ireland come from classical [Greco-Roman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greco-Roman_world "Greco-Roman world") geographers. [Ptolemy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy "Ptolemy") in his *[Almagest](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almagest "Almagest")* refers to Ireland as *Mikra Brettania* ("Little Britain"), in contrast to the larger island, which he called *Megale Brettania* ("Great Britain").^[[42]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-42)^ In [his map of Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy%27s_map_of_Ireland "Ptolemy's map of Ireland") in his later work, *[Geography](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_(Ptolemy) "Geography (Ptolemy)")*, Ptolemy refers to Ireland as *[Iouernia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hibernia "Hibernia")* and to Great Britain as *Albion*. These 'new' names were likely to have been the local names for the islands at the time. The earlier names, [in contrast](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exonym_and_endonym "Exonym and endonym"), were likely to have been coined before direct contact with local peoples was made.^[[43]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-43)^ + +The [Romans](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Romans "Ancient Romans") referred to Ireland by this name too in its [Latinised](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latinisation_of_names "Latinisation of names") form, *Hibernia*, or [Scotia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotia "Scotia").^[[44]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-44)^^[[45]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-45)^ Ptolemy records sixteen nations inhabiting every part of Ireland in 100 AD.^[[46]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-46)^ The relationship between the Roman Empire and the kingdoms of ancient Ireland is unclear. However, a number of finds of Roman coins have been made, for example at the Iron Age settlement of Freestone Hill near [Gowran](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gowran "Gowran") and [Newgrange](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newgrange "Newgrange").^[[47]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-47)^ + +Ireland continued as a patchwork of rival kingdoms; however, beginning in the 7th century, a concept of national kingship gradually became articulated through the concept of a [High King of Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_King_of_Ireland "High King of Ireland"). [Medieval Irish literature](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_Irish_literature "Medieval Irish literature") portrays an almost unbroken sequence of high kings stretching back thousands of years, but some modern historians believe the scheme was constructed in the 8th century to justify the status of powerful political groupings by projecting the origins of their rule into the remote past.^[[48]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-DOC-48)^ + +All of the Irish kingdoms had their own kings but were nominally subject to the high king. The high king was drawn from the ranks of the provincial kings and ruled also the royal [kingdom of Meath](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Meath "Kingdom of Meath"), with a ceremonial capital at the [Hill of Tara](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hill_of_Tara "Hill of Tara"). The concept did not become a political reality until the [Viking Age](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viking_Age#Ireland "Viking Age") and even then was not a consistent one.^[[49]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-49)^ Ireland did have a culturally unifying rule of law: the early written judicial system, the [Brehon Laws](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brehon_Laws "Brehon Laws"), administered by a professional class of jurists known as the *brehons*.^[[50]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-50)^ + +*[The Chronicle of Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Chronicle_of_Ireland "The Chronicle of Ireland")* records that in 431, Bishop [Palladius](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palladius_(bishop_of_Ireland) "Palladius (bishop of Ireland)") arrived in Ireland on a mission from [Pope Celestine I](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Celestine_I "Pope Celestine I") to minister to the Irish "already believing in Christ".^[[51]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-51)^ The same chronicle records that [Saint Patrick](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Patrick "Saint Patrick"), Ireland's best known [patron saint](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patron_saints_of_places "Patron saints of places"), arrived the following year. There is continued debate over the missions of Palladius and Patrick, but the consensus is that they both took place^[[52]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-52)^ and that the older [druid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Druid "Druid") tradition collapsed in the face of the new religion.^[[53]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-cah-53)^ Irish Christian scholars excelled in the study of Latin and Greek learning and Christian theology. In the monastic culture that followed the Christianisation of Ireland, Latin and Greek learning was preserved in Ireland during the [Early Middle Ages](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ages "Middle Ages") in contrast to elsewhere in Western Europe, where the [Dark Ages](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages "Early Middle Ages") followed the [Fall of the Western Roman Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire "Fall of the Western Roman Empire").^[[53]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-cah-53)^^[[54]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-Eer-54)^^[*[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources "Wikipedia:Citing sources")*]^ + +[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/KellsFol032vChristEnthroned.jpg/220px-KellsFol032vChristEnthroned.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:KellsFol032vChristEnthroned.jpg) + +A folio of the [Book of Kells](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Kells "Book of Kells") showing Christ enthroned + +The arts of [manuscript illumination](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illuminated_manuscript "Illuminated manuscript"), metalworking and sculpture flourished and produced treasures such as the *[Book of Kells](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Kells "Book of Kells")*, ornate jewellery and the many carved stone crosses^[[55]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-55)^ that still dot the island today. A mission founded in 563 on [Iona](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iona "Iona") by the Irish monk Saint [Columba](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columba "Columba") began [a tradition of Irish missionary](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiberno-Scottish_mission "Hiberno-Scottish mission") work that spread [Celtic Christianity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic_Christianity "Celtic Christianity") and learning to [Scotland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotland "Scotland"), [England](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_England "Anglo-Saxon England") and the [Frankish Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankish_Empire "Frankish Empire") on continental Europe after the fall of Rome.^[[56]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-56)^ These missions continued until the [late Middle Ages](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages "Late Middle Ages"), establishing monasteries and centres of learning, producing scholars such as [Sedulius Scottus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sedulius_Scottus "Sedulius Scottus") and [Johannes Eriugena](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Eriugena "Johannes Eriugena") and exerting much influence in Europe.^[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")*]^ + +From the 9th century, waves of [Viking](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viking "Viking") raiders plundered Irish monasteries and towns.^[[57]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-57)^ These raids added to a pattern of raiding and [endemic warfare](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endemic_warfare "Endemic warfare") that was already deep-seated in Ireland. The Vikings were involved in establishing most of the major coastal settlements in Ireland: [Dublin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dublin "Dublin"), [Limerick](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limerick "Limerick"), [Cork](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_Cork "County Cork"), [Wexford](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wexford "Wexford"), [Waterford](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterford "Waterford"), as well as other smaller settlements.^[[58]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-58)^^[*[unreliable source?](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources "Wikipedia:Reliable sources")*]^ + +### Norman and English invasions + +Main articles: [Norman invasion of Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norman_invasion_of_Ireland "Norman invasion of Ireland"), [History of Ireland (1169--1536)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Ireland_(1169%E2%80%931536) "History of Ireland (1169--1536)"), and [Tudor conquest of Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tudor_conquest_of_Ireland "Tudor conquest of Ireland") + +See also: [Bruce campaign in Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruce_campaign_in_Ireland "Bruce campaign in Ireland") + +[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Trim_Castle_6.jpg/220px-Trim_Castle_6.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Trim_Castle_6.jpg) + +Remains of the 12th-century [Trim Castle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trim_Castle "Trim Castle") in [County Meath](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_Meath "County Meath"), the largest [Norman castle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norman_architecture "Norman architecture") in Ireland + +On 1 May 1169, an expedition of [Cambro](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wales "Wales")-[Norman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norman_people "Norman people") knights, with an army of about 600 men, landed at [Bannow Strand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bannow "Bannow") in present-day [County Wexford](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_Wexford "County Wexford"). It was led by [Richard de Clare](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_de_Clare,_2nd_Earl_of_Pembroke "Richard de Clare, 2nd Earl of Pembroke"), known as 'Strongbow' owing to his prowess as an archer.^[[59]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-59)^ The invasion, which coincided with a period of renewed Norman expansion, was at the invitation of [Dermot Mac Murrough](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diarmait_Mac_Murchada "Diarmait Mac Murchada"), [King of Leinster](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kings_of_Leinster "Kings of Leinster").^[[60]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-60)^ + +In 1166, Mac Murrough had fled to [Anjou](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_of_Anjou "County of Anjou"), France, following a war involving [Tighearnán Ua Ruairc](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tighearn%C3%A1n_Ua_Ruairc "Tighearnán Ua Ruairc"), of [Breifne](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breifne "Breifne"), and sought the assistance of the [Angevin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angevin_Empire "Angevin Empire") King [Henry II](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Henry_II_of_England "King Henry II of England"), in recapturing his kingdom. In 1171, Henry arrived in Ireland in order to review the general progress of the expedition. He wanted to re-exert royal authority over the invasion which was expanding beyond his control. Henry successfully re-imposed his authority over Strongbow and the Cambro-Norman warlords and persuaded many of the Irish kings to accept him as their overlord, an arrangement confirmed in the 1175 [Treaty of Windsor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Windsor_1175 "Treaty of Windsor 1175"). + +The invasion was legitimised by reference to provisions of the alleged [Papal Bull](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papal_Bull "Papal Bull") *[Laudabiliter](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laudabiliter "Laudabiliter")*, issued by an Englishman, [Adrian IV](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Adrian_IV "Pope Adrian IV"), in 1155. The document apparently encouraged Henry to take control in Ireland in order to oversee the financial and administrative reorganisation of the [Irish Church](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic_Church "Celtic Church") and its integration into the Roman Church system.^[[61]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-Curtis_2002_49-61)^ Some restructuring had already begun at the ecclesiastical level following the [Synod of Kells](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synod_of_Kells "Synod of Kells") in 1152.^[[62]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-62)^ There has been significant controversy regarding the authenticity of *Laudabiliter*,^[[63]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-63)^ and there is no general agreement as to whether the bull was genuine or a forgery.^[[64]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-64)^^[[65]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-65)^ Further, it had no standing in the Irish legal system. + +[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Ireland_1450.png/220px-Ireland_1450.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ireland_1450.png) + +Political boundaries in Ireland in 1450, before the [plantations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plantations_of_Ireland "Plantations of Ireland") + +In 1172, Pope [Alexander III](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Alexander_III "Pope Alexander III") further encouraged Henry to advance the integration of the Irish Church with Rome. Henry was authorised to impose a tithe of one penny per hearth as an annual contribution. This church levy called [Peter's Pence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter%27s_Pence "Peter's Pence"), is extant in Ireland as a voluntary donation. In turn, Henry assumed the title of [Lord of Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord_of_Ireland "Lord of Ireland") which Henry conferred on his younger son, [John Lackland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Lackland "John Lackland"), in 1185. This defined the Anglo-Norman administration in Ireland as the [Lordship of Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lordship_of_Ireland "Lordship of Ireland").^[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")*]^ When Henry's successor died unexpectedly in 1199, [John](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_of_England "John of England") inherited the crown of England and retained the Lordship of Ireland. Over the century that followed, Norman feudal law gradually replaced the Gaelic Brehon Law across large areas, so that by the late 13th century the [Norman-Irish](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiberno-Norman "Hiberno-Norman") had established a feudal system throughout much of Ireland. Norman settlements were characterised by the establishment of baronies, manors, towns and the seeds of the modern county system. A version of [Magna Carta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magna_Carta "Magna Carta") (the [Great Charter of Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Charter_of_Ireland "Great Charter of Ireland")), substituting *Dublin* for *London* and the *Irish Church* for, the English church at the time, the *Catholic Church*, was published in 1216 and the [Parliament of Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliament_of_Ireland "Parliament of Ireland") was founded in 1297. + +### Gaelicisation + +From the mid-14th century, after the [Black Death](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Death "Black Death"), Norman settlements in Ireland went into a period of decline. The Norman rulers and the Gaelic Irish elites intermarried and the areas under Norman rule became [Gaelicised](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaelicisation "Gaelicisation"). In some parts, a hybrid Hiberno-Norman culture emerged. In response, the [Irish parliament](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliament_of_Ireland#Middle_Ages "Parliament of Ireland") passed the [Statutes of Kilkenny](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statutes_of_Kilkenny "Statutes of Kilkenny") in 1367. These were a set of laws designed to prevent the assimilation of the Normans into Irish society by requiring English subjects in Ireland to speak English, follow English customs and abide by English law.^[[66]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-66)^ + +By the end of the 15th century, central English authority in Ireland had all but disappeared, and a renewed Irish culture and language, albeit with Norman influences, was again dominant. English Crown control remained relatively unshaken in an amorphous foothold around Dublin known as [The Pale](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Pale "The Pale"), and under the provisions of [Poynings' Law](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poynings%27_Law_(on_certification_of_acts) "Poynings' Law (on certification of acts)") of 1494, Irish Parliamentary legislation was subject to the approval of the [English Privy Council](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Privy_Council "English Privy Council").^[[67]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-67)^ + +### The Kingdom of Ireland + +Main article: [Kingdom of Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Ireland "Kingdom of Ireland") + +[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Archive-ugent-be-79D46426-CC9D-11E3-B56B-4FBAD43445F2_DS-25_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Archive-ugent-be-79D46426-CC9D-11E3-B56B-4FBAD43445F2_DS-25_%28cropped%29.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Archive-ugent-be-79D46426-CC9D-11E3-B56B-4FBAD43445F2_DS-25_(cropped).jpg) + +A 16th-century perception of Irish women and girls, illustrated in the manuscript "Théâtre de tous les peuples et nations de la terre avec leurs habits et ornemens divers, tant anciens que modernes, diligemment depeints au naturel". Painted by [Lucas d'Heere](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucas_de_Heere "Lucas de Heere") in the 2nd half of the 16th century. Preserved in the [Ghent University Library](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghent_University_Library "Ghent University Library").^[[68]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-68)^ + +The title of [King of Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_of_Ireland "King of Ireland") was re-created in 1542 by [Henry VIII](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_VIII "Henry VIII"), the then [King of England](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_of_England "King of England"), of the [Tudor dynasty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tudor_dynasty "Tudor dynasty"). English rule was reinforced and expanded in Ireland during the latter part of the 16th century, leading to the [Tudor conquest of Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tudor_conquest_of_Ireland "Tudor conquest of Ireland"). A near-complete conquest was achieved by the turn of the 17th century, following the [Nine Years' War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nine_Years%27_War_(Ireland) "Nine Years' War (Ireland)") and the [Flight of the Earls](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flight_of_the_Earls "Flight of the Earls"). + +This control was consolidated during the wars and conflicts of the 17th century, including the English and Scottish colonisation in the [Plantations of Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plantations_of_Ireland "Plantations of Ireland"), the [Wars of the Three Kingdoms](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wars_of_the_Three_Kingdoms "Wars of the Three Kingdoms") and the [Williamite War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Williamite_War_in_Ireland "Williamite War in Ireland"). Irish losses during the Wars of the Three Kingdoms (which, in Ireland, included the [Irish Confederacy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Confederacy "Irish Confederacy") and the [Cromwellian conquest of Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cromwellian_conquest_of_Ireland "Cromwellian conquest of Ireland")) are estimated to include 20,000 battlefield casualties. 200,000 civilians are estimated to have died as a result of a combination of war-related famine, displacement, guerrilla activity and pestilence throughout the war. A further 50,000^[[Note 1]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-71)^ were sent into [indentured servitude](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indentured_servitude "Indentured servitude") in the [West Indies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Indies "West Indies"). Physician-general [William Petty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Petty "William Petty") estimated that 504,000 Catholic Irish and 112,000 Protestant settlers died, and 100,000 people were transported, as a result of the war.^[[71]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-72)^ If a prewar population of 1.5 million is assumed, this would mean that the population was reduced by almost half. + +The religious struggles of the 17th century left a deep sectarian division in Ireland. Religious allegiance now determined the perception in law of loyalty to the Irish King and Parliament. After the passing of [the Test Act 1672](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Test_Act#Test_Act_of_1673 "Test Act"), and the victory of the forces of the dual monarchy of [William](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_III_of_England "William III of England") and [Mary](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_II_of_England "Mary II of England") over the [Jacobites](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacobitism "Jacobitism"), Roman Catholics and nonconforming Protestant Dissenters were barred from sitting as members in the Irish Parliament. Under the emerging [Penal Laws](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penal_Laws_(Ireland) "Penal Laws (Ireland)"), Irish Roman Catholics and Dissenters were increasingly deprived of various civil rights, even the ownership of hereditary property. Additional regressive punitive legislation followed in 1703, 1709 and 1728. This completed a comprehensive systemic effort to materially disadvantage Roman Catholics and Protestant Dissenters while enriching a new ruling class of Anglican conformists.^[[72]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-73)^ The new Anglo-Irish ruling class became known as the [Protestant Ascendancy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestant_Ascendancy "Protestant Ascendancy"). + +[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Hanging.gif/170px-Hanging.gif)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hanging.gif) + +[Half-hanging](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Half-hanging "Half-hanging") of suspected [United Irishmen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Irishmen "United Irishmen") + +The "[Great Frost](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Famine_(1740%E2%80%931741)#Cause "Irish Famine (1740--1741)")" struck Ireland and the rest of Europe between December 1739 and September 1741, after a decade of relatively mild winters. The winters destroyed stored crops of potatoes and other staples, and the poor summers severely damaged harvests.^[[73]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-74)^^[*[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources "Wikipedia:Citing sources")*]^ This resulted in the [famine of 1740](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Famine_(1740%E2%80%931741) "Irish Famine (1740--1741)"). An estimated 250,000 people (about one in eight of the population) died from the ensuing pestilence and disease.^[[74]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-cormac_famine-75)^ The Irish government halted export of corn and kept the army in quarters but did little more.^[[74]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-cormac_famine-75)^^[[75]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-crawford_feast-76)^ Local gentry and charitable organisations provided relief but could do little to prevent the ensuing mortality.^[[74]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-cormac_famine-75)^^[[75]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-crawford_feast-76)^ + +In the aftermath of the famine, an increase in industrial production and a surge in trade brought a succession of construction booms. The population soared in the latter part of this century and the [architectural legacy of Georgian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgian_architecture "Georgian architecture") Ireland was built. In 1782, [Poynings' Law](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poynings%27_Law_(on_certification_of_acts) "Poynings' Law (on certification of acts)") was repealed, giving Ireland legislative independence from Great Britain for the first time since 1495. The British government, however, still retained the right to nominate the government of Ireland without the consent of the Irish parliament. + +### 1798 Rebellion + +Main article: [Irish Rebellion of 1798](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Rebellion_of_1798 "Irish Rebellion of 1798") + +[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/MAXWELL%281845%29_p130_Camp_on_Vinegar_Hill.jpg/220px-MAXWELL%281845%29_p130_Camp_on_Vinegar_Hill.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MAXWELL(1845)_p130_Camp_on_Vinegar_Hill.jpg) + +"The Camp on Vinegar Hill" - an illustration by [George Cruikshank](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Cruikshank "George Cruikshank") to accompany [William Hamilton Maxwell](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hamilton_Maxwell "William Hamilton Maxwell")'s 1845 work *History of the Irish rebellion in 1798* + +In 1798, members of the Protestant Dissenter tradition (mainly [Presbyterian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presbyterianism "Presbyterianism")) made common cause with Roman Catholics in a republican rebellion inspired and led by the [Society of United Irishmen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_of_United_Irishmen "Society of United Irishmen"), with the aim of creating an independent Ireland. Despite assistance from France the [rebellion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Rebellion_of_1798 "Irish Rebellion of 1798") was put down by British and Irish government and yeomanry forces. The rebellion lasted from the 24th of May to the 12th of October that year and saw the establishment of the short lived [Irish Republic (1798)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Republic_(1798) "Irish Republic (1798)") in the province on [Connacht](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connacht "Connacht"). It saw numerous battles across the island with an estimated 30,000 dead with some listed below (for full list see main article.) + +- [Battle of Ballymore-Eustace](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Ballymore-Eustace "Battle of Ballymore-Eustace") +- [Battle of Naas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Naas "Battle of Naas") +- [Battle of Vinegar Hill](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Vinegar_Hill "Battle of Vinegar Hill") +- [Battle of Clonard](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Clonard "Battle of Clonard") +- [Battle of Prosperous](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Prosperous "Battle of Prosperous") +- [Battle of Carlow](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Carlow "Battle of Carlow") +- [Battle of Castlebar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Castlebar "Battle of Castlebar") + +### Union with Great Britain + +Main article: [United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland "United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland") + +As a direct result of the 1798 rebellion in its aftermath in 1800, the British and Irish parliaments both passed [Acts of Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acts_of_Union_1800 "Acts of Union 1800") that, with effect from 1 January 1801, merged the [Kingdom of Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Ireland "Kingdom of Ireland") and the [Kingdom of Great Britain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain "Kingdom of Great Britain") to create a [United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland "United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland").^[[76]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-Ward_1994_28-77)^ + +The passage of the Act in the Irish Parliament was ultimately achieved with substantial majorities, having failed on the first attempt in 1799. According to contemporary documents and historical analysis, this was achieved through a considerable degree of bribery, with funding provided by the British Secret Service Office, and the awarding of peerages, places and honours to secure votes.^[[76]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-Ward_1994_28-77)^ Thus, the parliament in Ireland was abolished and replaced by a [united parliament at Westminster](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom "Parliament of the United Kingdom") in London, though resistance remained, as evidenced by [Robert Emmet](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Emmet "Robert Emmet")'s failed [Irish Rebellion of 1803](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Rebellion_of_1803 "Irish Rebellion of 1803"). + +Aside from the development of the [linen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linen "Linen") industry, Ireland was largely passed over by the [industrial revolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution "Industrial revolution"), partly because it lacked coal and iron resources^[[77]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-78)^^[[78]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-79)^ and partly because of the impact of the sudden union with the structurally superior economy of England,^[[79]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-80)^ which saw Ireland as a source of agricultural produce and capital.^[[80]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-81)^^[[81]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-82)^ + +[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/FRENCH%281891%29_p118_THE_FAMINE_AT_BOFIN.jpg/220px-FRENCH%281891%29_p118_THE_FAMINE_AT_BOFIN.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FRENCH(1891)_p118_THE_FAMINE_AT_BOFIN.jpg) + +A depiction of the [Great Famine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Famine_(Ireland) "Great Famine (Ireland)") from *Our Boys in Ireland* by Henry Willard French (1891) + +The [Great Famine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Famine_(Ireland) "Great Famine (Ireland)") of 1845--1851 devastated Ireland, as in those years Ireland's population fell by one-third. More than one million people died from starvation and disease, with an additional million people emigrating during the famine, mostly to the United States and Canada.^[[82]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-83)^ In the century that followed, an economic depression caused by the famine resulted in a further million people emigrating.^[[83]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-84)^ By the end of the decade, half of all [immigration to the United States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immigration_to_the_United_States "Immigration to the United States") was from Ireland. The period of civil unrest that followed until the end of the 19th century is referred to as the [Land War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_War "Land War"). Mass emigration became deeply entrenched and the population continued to decline until the mid-20th century. Immediately prior to the famine the population was recorded as 8.2 million by the [1841 census](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1841_census_of_Ireland "1841 census of Ireland").^[[84]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-85)^ The population has never returned to this level since.^[[85]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-86)^ The population continued to fall until 1961; [County Leitrim](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_Leitrim "County Leitrim") was the final Irish county to record a population increase post-famine, in 2006. + +The 19th and early 20th centuries saw the rise of modern [Irish nationalism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_nationalism "Irish nationalism"), primarily among the Roman Catholic population. The pre-eminent Irish political figure after the Union was [Daniel O'Connell](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_O%27Connell "Daniel O'Connell"). He was elected as Member of Parliament for [Ennis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ennis_(UK_Parliament_constituency) "Ennis (UK Parliament constituency)") in a surprise result and despite being unable to take his seat [as a Roman Catholic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Test_Act "The Test Act"). O'Connell spearheaded a vigorous campaign that was taken up by the Prime Minister, the Irish-born soldier and statesman, the [Duke of Wellington](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Wellesley,_1st_Duke_of_Wellington "Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington"). Steering the [Catholic Relief Bill](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Relief_Act_1829 "Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829") through Parliament, aided by future prime minister [Robert Peel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Peel "Robert Peel"), Wellington prevailed upon a reluctant [George IV](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_IV_of_the_United_Kingdom "George IV of the United Kingdom") to sign the Bill and proclaim it into law. [George's father](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_III "George III") had opposed the plan of the earlier Prime Minister, [Pitt the Younger](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Pitt_the_Younger "William Pitt the Younger"), to introduce such a bill following the Union of 1801, fearing [Catholic Emancipation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic_Emancipation "Catholic Emancipation") to be in conflict with the [Act of Settlement 1701](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Act_of_Settlement_1701 "Act of Settlement 1701"). + +Daniel O'Connell led a subsequent campaign, for the repeal of the Act of Union, which failed. Later in the century, [Charles Stewart Parnell](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Stewart_Parnell "Charles Stewart Parnell") and others campaigned for autonomy within the Union, or "[Home Rule](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Home_Rule_Bills "Irish Home Rule Bills")". Unionists, especially those located in Ulster, were strongly opposed to Home Rule, which they thought would be dominated by Catholic interests.^[[86]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-87)^ After several attempts to pass a Home Rule bill through parliament, it looked certain that one would finally pass in 1914. To prevent this from happening, the [Ulster Volunteers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulster_Volunteers "Ulster Volunteers") were formed in 1913 under the leadership of [Edward Carson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Carson "Edward Carson").^[[87]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-Kee_1972_478%E2%80%93530-88)^ + +Their formation was followed in 1914 by the establishment of the [Irish Volunteers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Volunteers "Irish Volunteers"), whose aim was to ensure that the [Home Rule Bill](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Home_Rule_Act "Third Home Rule Act") was passed. The Act was passed but with the "temporary" exclusion of the six counties of Ulster, which later became Northern Ireland. Before it could be implemented, however, the Act was suspended for the duration of the [First World War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_World_War "First World War"). The Irish Volunteers split into two groups. The majority, approximately 175,000 in number, under [John Redmond](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Redmond "John Redmond"), took the name [National Volunteers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Volunteers "National Volunteers") and supported [Irish involvement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland_and_World_War_I "Ireland and World War I") in the war. A minority, approximately 13,000, retained the Irish Volunteers' name and opposed Ireland's involvement in the war.^[[87]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-Kee_1972_478%E2%80%93530-88)^ + +[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Sackville_Street_%28Dublin%29_after_the_1916_Easter_Rising.JPG/220px-Sackville_Street_%28Dublin%29_after_the_1916_Easter_Rising.JPG)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sackville_Street_(Dublin)_after_the_1916_Easter_Rising.JPG) + +Sackville Street (now [O'Connell Street](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/O%27Connell_Street "O'Connell Street")), Dublin, after the 1916 [Easter Rising](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Easter_Rising "Easter Rising") + +The [Easter Rising](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Easter_Rising "Easter Rising") of 1916 was carried out by the latter group together with a smaller socialist militia, the [Irish Citizen Army](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Citizen_Army "Irish Citizen Army"). The British response, executing fifteen leaders of the Rising over a period of ten days and imprisoning or interning more than a thousand people, turned the mood of the country in favour of the rebels. Support for [Irish republicanism increased](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_force_Irish_republicanism "Physical force Irish republicanism") further due to the ongoing war in Europe, as well as the [Conscription Crisis of 1918](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conscription_Crisis_of_1918 "Conscription Crisis of 1918").^[[88]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-autogenerated34-89)^ + +The pro-independence republican party, [Sinn Féin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinn_F%C3%A9in "Sinn Féin"), received overwhelming endorsement in the [general election of 1918](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1918_Irish_general_election "1918 Irish general election"), and in 1919 proclaimed an [Irish Republic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Republic "Irish Republic"), setting up its own parliament (*[Dáil Éireann](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_D%C3%A1il "First Dáil")*) and government. Simultaneously the Volunteers, which became known as the [Irish Republican Army](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Republican_Army "Irish Republican Army") (IRA), launched a [three-year guerrilla war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_War_of_Independence "Irish War of Independence"), which ended in a truce in July 1921 (although violence continued until June 1922, mostly in Northern Ireland).^[[88]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-autogenerated34-89)^ + +### Partition + +Main article: [Partition of Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partition_of_Ireland "Partition of Ireland") + +In December 1921, the [Anglo-Irish Treaty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Irish_Treaty "Anglo-Irish Treaty") was concluded between the British government and representatives of the [Second Dáil](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_D%C3%A1il "Second Dáil"). It gave Ireland complete independence in its home affairs and practical independence for foreign policy, but an opt-out clause allowed [Northern Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Ireland "Northern Ireland") to remain within the United Kingdom, which it immediately exercised. Additionally, Members of the [Free State Parliament](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_D%C3%A1il "Third Dáil") were required to swear [an oath of allegiance to the Constitution of the Irish Free State](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oath_of_Allegiance_(Ireland) "Oath of Allegiance (Ireland)") and make a statement of faithfulness to the king.^[[89]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-90)^ Disagreements over these provisions led to a split in the nationalist movement and a subsequent [Irish Civil War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Civil_War "Irish Civil War") between the new government of the [Irish Free State](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Free_State "Irish Free State") and those opposed to the treaty, led by [Éamon de Valera](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89amon_de_Valera "Éamon de Valera"). The civil war officially ended in May 1923 when de Valera issued a cease-fire order.^[[90]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-91)^ + +#### Independence + +Main articles: [History of the Republic of Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Republic_of_Ireland "History of the Republic of Ireland") and [Economy of the Republic of Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_the_Republic_of_Ireland "Economy of the Republic of Ireland") + +[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Anglo-Irish_Treaty_Griffith_annotated2.gif/220px-Anglo-Irish_Treaty_Griffith_annotated2.gif)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Anglo-Irish_Treaty_Griffith_annotated2.gif) + +Annotated page from the [Anglo-Irish Treaty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Irish_Treaty "Anglo-Irish Treaty") that established the [Irish Free State](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Free_State "Irish Free State") and independence for 26 out of 32 [Irish counties](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counties_of_Ireland "Counties of Ireland") + +During its first decade, the newly formed Irish Free State was governed by the victors of the civil war. When de Valera achieved power, he took advantage of the [Statute of Westminster](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statute_of_Westminster_1931 "Statute of Westminster 1931") and [political circumstances](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_VIII_abdication_crisis "Edward VIII abdication crisis") to build upon inroads to greater sovereignty made by the previous government. The oath was abolished and in 1937 a new constitution was adopted.^[[88]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-autogenerated34-89)^ This completed a process of gradual separation from the British Empire that governments had pursued since independence. However, it was not until 1949 that the state was declared, officially, to be the [Republic of Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland "Republic of Ireland"). + +[The state was neutral](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_neutrality "Irish neutrality") during [World War II](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Emergency_(Ireland) "The Emergency (Ireland)"), but offered [clandestine assistance to the Allies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_neutrality_during_World_War_II "Irish neutrality during World War II"), particularly in the potential defence of Northern Ireland. Despite their country's neutrality, approximately 50,000^[[91]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-92)^ volunteers from independent Ireland joined the British forces during the war, four being awarded [Victoria Crosses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victoria_Crosses "Victoria Crosses"). + +The [German intelligence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abwehr "Abwehr") was also active in Ireland.^[[92]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-autogenerated695-93)^ Its operations ended in September 1941 when [police](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garda_S%C3%ADoch%C3%A1na "Garda Síochána") made arrests based on surveillance carried out on the key diplomatic legations in Dublin. To the authorities, counterintelligence was a fundamental line of defence. With a regular army of only slightly over seven thousand men at the start of the war, and with limited supplies of modern weapons, the state would have had great difficulty in defending itself from invasion from either side in the conflict.^[[92]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-autogenerated695-93)^^[[93]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-94)^ + +Large-scale emigration marked most of the post-WWII period (particularly during the 1950s and 1980s), but beginning in 1987 the economy improved, and the 1990s saw the beginning of substantial economic growth. This period of growth became known as the [Celtic Tiger](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic_Tiger "Celtic Tiger").^[[94]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-clancy3-95)^ The Republic's real GDP grew by an average of 9.6% per annum between 1995 and 1999,^[[95]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-96)^ in which year the Republic joined the [euro](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euro "Euro"). In 2000, it was the sixth-richest country in the world in terms of GDP per capita.^[[96]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-97)^ Historian [R. F. Foster](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R._F._Foster_(historian) "R. F. Foster (historian)") argues the cause was a combination of a new sense of initiative and the entry of American corporations. He concludes the chief factors were low taxation, pro-business regulatory policies, and a young, tech-savvy workforce. For many multinationals, the decision to do business in Ireland was made easier still by generous incentives from the [Industrial Development Authority](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IDA_Ireland "IDA Ireland"). In addition [European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union "European Union") membership was helpful, giving the country lucrative access to markets that it had previously reached only through the United Kingdom, and pumping huge subsidies and investment capital into the Irish economy.^[[97]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-98)^ + +Modernisation brought secularisation in its wake. The traditionally high levels of religiosity have sharply declined. Foster points to three factors: First, Irish feminism, largely imported from America with liberal stances on contraception, abortion and divorce, undermined the authority of bishops and priests. Second, the mishandling of the paedophile scandals humiliated the Church, whose bishops seemed less concerned with the victims and more concerned with covering up for errant priests. Third, prosperity brought hedonism and materialism that undercut the ideals of saintly poverty.^[[98]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-99)^ + +The [financial crisis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-2008_Irish_economic_downturn "Post-2008 Irish economic downturn") that began in 2008 dramatically ended this period of boom. GDP fell by 3% in 2008 and by 7.1% in 2009, the worst year since records began (although earnings by foreign-owned businesses continued to grow).^[[99]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-100)^ The state has since experienced deep recession, with unemployment, which doubled during 2009, remaining above 14% in 2012.^[[100]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-101)^ + +#### Northern Ireland + +Main articles: [History of Northern Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Northern_Ireland "History of Northern Ireland") and [Economy of Northern Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_Northern_Ireland "Economy of Northern Ireland") + +Northern Ireland resulted from the division of the United Kingdom by the [Government of Ireland Act 1920](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_of_Ireland_Act_1920 "Government of Ireland Act 1920"), and until 1972 was a self-governing jurisdiction within the United Kingdom with its own parliament and prime minister. Northern Ireland, as part of the United Kingdom, was not neutral during the Second World War, and [Belfast suffered four bombing raids](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belfast_Blitz "Belfast Blitz") in 1941. [Conscription](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conscription "Conscription") was not extended to Northern Ireland, and roughly an equal number volunteered from Northern Ireland as volunteered from the Republic of Ireland. + +[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/de/Carson_signing_Solemn_League_and_Covenant.jpg/220px-Carson_signing_Solemn_League_and_Covenant.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Carson_signing_Solemn_League_and_Covenant.jpg) + +[Edward Carson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Carson "Edward Carson") signing the [Solemn League and Covenant](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulster_Covenant "Ulster Covenant") in 1912, declaring opposition to [Home Rule](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Home_Rule_bills "Irish Home Rule bills") "using all means which may be found necessary" + +Although Northern Ireland was largely spared the strife of the civil war, in the decades that followed partition there were sporadic episodes of inter-communal violence. Nationalists, mainly Roman Catholic, wanted to unite Ireland as an independent republic, whereas unionists, mainly Protestant, wanted Northern Ireland to remain in the United Kingdom. The Protestant and Catholic communities in Northern Ireland voted largely along [sectarian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sectarian "Sectarian") lines, meaning that the government of Northern Ireland (elected by ["first-past-the-post"](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plurality_electoral_system "Plurality electoral system") from 1929) was controlled by the [Ulster Unionist Party](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulster_Unionist_Party "Ulster Unionist Party"). Over time, the minority Catholic community felt increasingly alienated with further disaffection fuelled by practices such as [gerrymandering](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerrymandering "Gerrymandering") and discrimination in housing and employment.^[[101]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-whyte-102)^^[[102]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-103)^^[[103]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-104)^ + +In the late 1960s, nationalist grievances were aired publicly in mass civil rights protests, which were often confronted by [loyalist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulster_loyalism "Ulster loyalism") counter-protests.^[[104]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-105)^ The government's reaction to confrontations was seen to be one-sided and heavy-handed in favour of unionists. Law and order broke down as unrest and inter-communal violence increased.^[[105]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-106)^ The Northern Ireland government requested the [British Army](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Army "British Army") to aid the police and protect the [Irish Nationalist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Nationalist "Irish Nationalist") population. In 1969, the paramilitary [Provisional IRA](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provisional_Irish_Republican_Army "Provisional Irish Republican Army"), which favoured the creation of a [united Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Ireland "United Ireland"), emerged from a split in the [Irish Republican Army](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Republican_Army_(1922%E2%80%931969) "Irish Republican Army (1922--1969)") and began a campaign against what it called the "British occupation of the six counties".^[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")*]^ + +Other groups, both the unionist and nationalist participated in violence, and a period known as "[the Troubles](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Troubles "The Troubles")" began. Over 3,600 deaths resulted over the subsequent three decades of conflict.^[[106]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-107)^ Owing to the civil unrest during the Troubles, the British government suspended home rule in 1972 and imposed [direct rule](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_rule_over_Northern_Ireland "Direct rule over Northern Ireland"). There were several unsuccessful attempts to end the Troubles politically, such as the [Sunningdale Agreement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunningdale_Agreement "Sunningdale Agreement") of 1973. In 1998, following a ceasefire by the Provisional IRA and multi-party talks, the [Good Friday Agreement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good_Friday_Agreement "Good Friday Agreement") was concluded as a treaty between the British and Irish governments, annexing the text agreed in the multi-party talks. + +The substance of the Agreement (formally referred to as the Belfast Agreement) was later endorsed by referendums in both parts of Ireland. The Agreement restored self-government to Northern Ireland on the basis of power-sharing in a regional [Executive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Ireland_Executive "Northern Ireland Executive") drawn from the major parties in a new [Northern Ireland Assembly](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Ireland_Assembly "Northern Ireland Assembly"), with entrenched protections for the two main communities. The Executive is jointly headed by a [First Minister and deputy First Minister](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Minister_and_deputy_First_Minister "First Minister and deputy First Minister") drawn from the unionist and nationalist parties. Violence had decreased greatly after the Provisional IRA and loyalist ceasefires in 1994 and in 2005 the Provisional IRA announced the end of its armed campaign and an [independent commission](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independent_International_Commission_on_Decommissioning "Independent International Commission on Decommissioning") supervised its disarmament and that of other nationalist and unionist paramilitary organisations.^[[107]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-108)^ + +The Assembly and power-sharing Executive were suspended several times but were restored again in 2007. In that year the British government officially ended its military support of the police in Northern Ireland ([Operation Banner](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Banner "Operation Banner")) and began withdrawing troops. On 27 June 2012, Northern Ireland's deputy first minister and former IRA commander, [Martin McGuinness](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_McGuinness "Martin McGuinness"), shook hands with Queen Elizabeth II in Belfast, symbolising reconciliation between the two sides.^[[108]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-109)^ + +Politics +-------- + +[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/British%E2%80%93European_Union_frontier_in_Ireland.svg/170px-British%E2%80%93European_Union_frontier_in_Ireland.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:British%E2%80%93European_Union_frontier_in_Ireland.svg) + +Political entities on the island of Ireland + +The island is divided between the Republic of Ireland, an independent [state](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereign_state "Sovereign state"), and Northern Ireland, a constituent country of the United Kingdom. They share an [open border](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_border "Irish border") and both are part of the [Common Travel Area](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_Travel_Area "Common Travel Area") and as a consequence, there is [free movement of people, goods, services and capital](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single_market "Single market") across the border. + +The Republic of Ireland is a member state of the European Union while the United Kingdom is a former member state, having both acceded to its precursor entity, the European Economic Community (EEC), in 1973 but the UK [left the European Union in 2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit "Brexit") after a [referendum on EU membership was held in 2016](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_United_Kingdom_European_Union_membership_referendum "2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum") which resulted in 51.9% of UK voters choosing to leave the bloc. + +### Republic of Ireland + +Main article: [Republic of Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland "Republic of Ireland") + +[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/%C3%81ras_an_Uachtar%C3%A1in-2011.jpg/220px-%C3%81ras_an_Uachtar%C3%A1in-2011.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%C3%81ras_an_Uachtar%C3%A1in-2011.jpg) + +*[Áras an Uachtaráin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81ras_an_Uachtar%C3%A1in "Áras an Uachtaráin")*, the official residence of the [President of Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_Ireland "President of Ireland") + +The Republic of Ireland is a [parliamentary democracy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliamentary_democracy "Parliamentary democracy") based on the [Westminster system](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_system "Westminster system"), with a [written constitution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_Ireland "Constitution of Ireland") and a popularly elected [president](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_Ireland "President of Ireland") whose role is mostly ceremonial. The [Oireachtas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oireachtas "Oireachtas") is a [bicameral](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicameral "Bicameral") parliament, composed of [Dáil Éireann](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%A1il_%C3%89ireann "Dáil Éireann") (the Dáil), a house of representatives, and [Seanad Éireann](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seanad_%C3%89ireann "Seanad Éireann") (the Seanad), an [upper house](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_house "Upper house"). The [government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_of_Ireland "Government of Ireland") is headed by a prime minister, the [Taoiseach](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoiseach "Taoiseach"), who is appointed by the president on the nomination of the Dáil. Its capital is Dublin. + +The Republic of Ireland today ranks among the wealthiest countries in the world in terms of [GDP per capita](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GDP_per_capita "GDP per capita")^[[109]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-110)^ and in 2015 was ranked the sixth most developed nation in the world by the United Nations' [Human Development Index](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Development_Index "Human Development Index").^[[110]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-111)^ A period of rapid economic expansion from 1995 onwards became known as the [Celtic Tiger](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic_Tiger "Celtic Tiger") period, was brought to an end in 2008 with an unprecedented [financial crisis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-2008_Irish_economic_downturn "Post-2008 Irish economic downturn") and an economic depression in 2009. + +### Northern Ireland + +Main article: [Northern Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Ireland "Northern Ireland") + +[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/StormontCarson.jpg/220px-StormontCarson.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:StormontCarson.jpg) + +[Parliament Buildings](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliament_Buildings_(Northern_Ireland) "Parliament Buildings (Northern Ireland)"), in [Stormont Estate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stormont_Estate "Stormont Estate"), seat of the [Northern Ireland Assembly](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Ireland_Assembly "Northern Ireland Assembly") + +Northern Ireland is a part of the United Kingdom with a local [executive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Ireland_Executive "Northern Ireland Executive") and [assembly](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Ireland_Assembly "Northern Ireland Assembly") which exercise devolved powers. The executive is jointly headed by the first and deputy first minister, with the ministries being allocated in proportion to each party's representation in the assembly. Its capital is [Belfast](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belfast "Belfast"). + +Ultimately political power is held by the [UK government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UK_government "UK government"), from which Northern Ireland has gone through intermittent periods of direct rule during which devolved powers have been suspended. Northern Ireland elects 18 of the UK [House of Commons](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Commons_of_the_United_Kingdom "House of Commons of the United Kingdom")' 650 MPs. The [Northern Ireland Secretary](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Ireland_Secretary "Northern Ireland Secretary") is a cabinet-level post in the British government. + +Along with [England and Wales](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/England_and_Wales "England and Wales") and with Scotland, Northern Ireland forms one of the three separate legal jurisdictions of the UK, all of which share the [Supreme Court of the United Kingdom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_Kingdom "Supreme Court of the United Kingdom") as their court of final appeal. + +### All-island institutions + +As part of the Good Friday Agreement, the British and Irish governments agreed on the creation of all-island institutions and areas of cooperation. The [North/South Ministerial Council](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North/South_Ministerial_Council "North/South Ministerial Council") is an institution through which ministers from the Government of Ireland and the Northern Ireland Executive agree all-island policies. At least six of these policy areas must have an associated all-island "implementation body," and at least six others must be implemented separately in each jurisdiction. The implementation bodies are: [Waterways Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterways_Ireland "Waterways Ireland"), the [Food Safety Promotion Board](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_Safety_Promotion_Board "Food Safety Promotion Board"), [InterTradeIreland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/InterTradeIreland "InterTradeIreland"), the [Special European Union Programmes Body](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_European_Union_Programmes_Body "Special European Union Programmes Body"), [the North/South Language Body](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_North/South_Language_Body "The North/South Language Body") and the [Foyle, Carlingford and Irish Lights Commission](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commissioners_of_Irish_Lights "Commissioners of Irish Lights"). + +The [British--Irish Intergovernmental Conference](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British%E2%80%93Irish_Intergovernmental_Conference "British--Irish Intergovernmental Conference") provides for co-operation between the Government of Ireland and the Government of the United Kingdom on all matters of mutual interest, especially Northern Ireland. In light of the Republic's particular interest in the governance of Northern Ireland, "regular and frequent" meetings co-chaired by the Irish Minister for Foreign Affairs and the British Secretary of State for Northern Ireland, dealing with non-devolved matters to do with Northern Ireland and non-devolved [all-Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All-Ireland "All-Ireland") issues, are required to take place under the establishing treaty. + +The [North/South Inter-Parliamentary Association](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North/South_Inter-Parliamentary_Association "North/South Inter-Parliamentary Association") is a joint parliamentary forum for the island of Ireland. It has no formal powers but operates as a forum for discussing matters of common concern between the respective legislatures. + +Geography +--------- + +Main article: [Geography of Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_of_Ireland "Geography of Ireland") + +[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Ireland_physical_large.png/260px-Ireland_physical_large.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ireland_physical_large.png) + +Physical features of Ireland + +Ireland is located in the [north-west of Europe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North-West_Europe "North-West Europe"), between latitudes [51°](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/51st_parallel_north "51st parallel north") and [56° N](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/56th_parallel_north "56th parallel north"), and longitudes [11°](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/11th_meridian_west "11th meridian west") and [5° W](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5th_meridian_west "5th meridian west"). It is separated from Great Britain by the [Irish Sea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Sea "Irish Sea") and the [North Channel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Channel_(Great_Britain_and_Ireland) "North Channel (Great Britain and Ireland)"), which has a width of 23 kilometres (14 mi)^[[111]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-112)^ at its narrowest point. To the west is the northern Atlantic Ocean and to the south is the [Celtic Sea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic_Sea "Celtic Sea"), which lies between Ireland and [Brittany](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brittany "Brittany"), in France. Ireland has a total area of 84,421 km^2^ (32,595 sq mi),^[[1]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-irlgeog-1)^^[[2]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-royle-2)^^[[112]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-113)^ of which the Republic of Ireland occupies 83 percent.^[[113]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-114)^ Ireland and Great Britain, together with many nearby smaller islands, are known collectively as the [British Isles](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Isles "British Isles"). As [the term *British Isles* can be controversial](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Isles_naming_dispute "British Isles naming dispute") in relation to Ireland, the alternate term *Britain and Ireland* is sometimes used as a neutral term for the islands.^[[114]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-GuardianMOS01-115)^ + +A ring of coastal mountains surrounds low plains at the centre of the island. The highest of these is [Carrauntoohil](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrauntoohil "Carrauntoohil") ([Irish](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language "Irish language"): *Corrán Tuathail*) in [County Kerry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_Kerry "County Kerry"), which rises to 1,039 m (3,409 ft) above sea level.^[[115]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-OSI_faqs-116)^ The most arable land lies in the province of [Leinster](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leinster "Leinster").^[[116]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-117)^ Western areas are mainly mountainous and rocky with green panoramic vistas. [River Shannon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_Shannon "River Shannon"), the island's longest river at 360.5 km (224 mi) long, rises in [County Cavan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_Cavan "County Cavan") in the north-west and flows through [Limerick](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limerick "Limerick") in the midwest.^[[115]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-OSI_faqs-116)^^[[117]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-118)^ + +### Geology + +Main article: [Geology of Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geology_of_Ireland "Geology of Ireland") + +[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Topography_Ireland.jpg/220px-Topography_Ireland.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Topography_Ireland.jpg) + +[Topography](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topography "Topography") of Ireland + +The island consists of varied [geological provinces](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologic_province "Geologic province"). In the west, around County Galway and [County Donegal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_Donegal "County Donegal"), is a medium to high grade metamorphic and igneous complex of [Caledonide](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caledonides "Caledonides") affinity, similar to the [Scottish Highlands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Highlands "Scottish Highlands"). Across southeast Ulster and extending southwest to [Longford](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longford "Longford") and south to [Navan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navan "Navan") is a province of [Ordovician](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordovician "Ordovician") and [Silurian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silurian "Silurian") rocks, with similarities to the [Southern Uplands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Uplands "Southern Uplands") province of Scotland. Further south, along the [County Wexford](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_Wexford "County Wexford") coastline, is an area of granite [intrusives](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intrusion "Intrusion") into more Ordovician and Silurian rocks, like that found in Wales.^[[118]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-119)^^[[119]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-120)^ + +In the southwest, around [Bantry Bay](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bantry_Bay "Bantry Bay") and the mountains of [MacGillycuddy's Reeks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MacGillycuddy%27s_Reeks "MacGillycuddy's Reeks"), is an area of substantially deformed, lightly [metamorphosed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metamorphic_rock "Metamorphic rock") [Devonian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devonian "Devonian")-aged rocks.^[[120]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-121)^ This partial ring of "hard rock" geology is covered by a blanket of [Carboniferous](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carboniferous "Carboniferous") limestone over the centre of the country, giving rise to a comparatively fertile and lush landscape. The west-coast district of [the Burren](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Burren "The Burren") around [Lisdoonvarna](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lisdoonvarna "Lisdoonvarna") has well-developed [karst](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karst "Karst") features.^[[121]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-122)^ Significant stratiform lead-zinc mineralisation is found in the limestones around [Silvermines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silvermines "Silvermines") and [Tynagh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tynagh "Tynagh"). + +[Hydrocarbon exploration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrocarbon_exploration "Hydrocarbon exploration") is ongoing following the first major find at the [Kinsale Head gas field](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinsale_Head_gas_field "Kinsale Head gas field") off [Cork](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cork_(city) "Cork (city)") in the mid-1970s.^[[122]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-energyfiles-123)^^[[123]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-sch-124)^ In 1999, economically significant finds of natural gas were made in the [Corrib Gas Field](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corrib_Gas_Field "Corrib Gas Field") off the County Mayo coast. This has increased activity off the west coast in parallel with the "[West of Shetland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Sea_oil#West_of_Shetland "North Sea oil")" step-out development from the [North Sea hydrocarbon province](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Sea_oil "North Sea oil"). In 2000, the [Helvick](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helvick "Helvick") oil field was discovered, which was estimated to contain over 28 million barrels (4,500,000 m^3^) of oil.^[[124]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-125)^ + +### Climate + +Main article: [Climate of Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_of_Ireland "Climate of Ireland") + +The island's lush vegetation, a product of its mild climate and frequent rainfall, earns it the sobriquet *the Emerald Isle*. Overall, Ireland has a mild but changeable [oceanic climate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanic_climate "Oceanic climate") with few extremes. The climate is typically insular and [temperate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperate_climate "Temperate climate"), avoiding the extremes in temperature of many other areas in the world at similar latitudes.^[[125]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-MEclimate-126)^ This is a result of the moist winds which ordinarily prevail from the southwestern Atlantic. + +Precipitation falls throughout the year but is light overall, particularly in the east. The west tends to be wetter on average and prone to Atlantic storms, especially in the late autumn and winter months. These occasionally bring destructive winds and higher total rainfall to these areas, as well as sometimes snow and hail. The regions of north County Galway and east County Mayo have the highest incidents of recorded lightning annually for the island, with lightning occurring approximately five to ten days per year in these areas.^[[126]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-MErainfall-127)^ [Munster](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Munster "Munster"), in the south, records the least snow whereas [Ulster](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulster "Ulster"), in the north, records the most. + +Inland areas are warmer in summer and colder in winter. Usually around 40 days of the year are below freezing 0 °C (32 °F) at inland [weather stations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weather_station "Weather station"), compared to 10 days at coastal stations. Ireland is sometimes affected by heat waves, most recently in 1995, [2003](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2003_European_heat_wave "2003 European heat wave"), [2006](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006_European_heat_wave#Ireland "2006 European heat wave"), 2013 and [2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2018_British_Isles_heat_wave "2018 British Isles heat wave"). In common with the rest of Europe, Ireland experienced unusually cold weather during [the winter of 2010--11](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winter_of_2010%E2%80%9311_in_Great_Britain_and_Ireland "Winter of 2010--11 in Great Britain and Ireland"). Temperatures fell as low as -17.2 °C (1 °F) in County Mayo on 20 December^[[127]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-128)^ and up to a metre (3 ft) of snow fell in mountainous areas. + +| hideClimate data for Ireland | +| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | +| Record high °C (°F) | 18.5\ +(65.3) | 18.1\ +(64.6) | 23.6\ +(74.5) | 25.8\ +(78.4) | 28.4\ +(83.1) | 33.3\ +(91.9) | 33.0\ +(91.4) | 32.1\ +(89.8) | 29.1\ +(84.4) | 25.2\ +(77.4) | 20.1\ +(68.2) | 18.1\ +(64.6) | 33.3\ +(91.9) | +| Record low °C (°F) | -19.1\ +(-2.4) | -17.8\ +(0.0) | -17.2\ +(1.0) | -7.7\ +(18.1) | -5.6\ +(21.9) | -3.3\ +(26.1) | -0.3\ +(31.5) | -2.7\ +(27.1) | -3\ +(27) | -8.3\ +(17.1) | -11.5\ +(11.3) | -17.5\ +(0.5) | -19.1\ +(-2.4) | +| Source 1: *Met Éireann*^[[128]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-Metrecords-129)^ | +| Source 2: The Irish Times (November record high)^[[129]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-130)^ | + +Flora and fauna +--------------- + +Main articles: [Fauna of Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fauna_of_Ireland "Fauna of Ireland"), [Flora of Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flora_of_Ireland "Flora of Ireland"), and [Trees of Britain and Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trees_of_Britain_and_Ireland "Trees of Britain and Ireland") + +[![The red fox is common in Ireland.](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Red_Fox_%28Vulpes_vulpes%29_%284%29.jpg/220px-Red_Fox_%28Vulpes_vulpes%29_%284%29.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Red_Fox_(Vulpes_vulpes)_(4).jpg) + +Two [red foxes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_fox "Red fox") (*Vulpes vulpes*) in Gubbeen, County Cork + +Unlike Great Britain which had a land bridge with [mainland Europe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mainland_Europe "Mainland Europe"), Ireland only had an ice bridge ending around 14,000 years ago at the end of the [last ice age](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Last_Glacial_Period "Last Glacial Period") and as a result, it has fewer land animal and plant species than Great Britain or mainland Europe.^[[20]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-Marine_Geology-20)^^[[21]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-drowning-21)^ There are [55 mammal species](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mammals_of_Ireland "List of mammals of Ireland") in Ireland, and of them, only 26 land mammal species are considered native to Ireland.^[[130]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-Costello,_M.J_93-131)^ Some species, such as, the [red fox](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_fox "Red fox"), [hedgehog](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_hedgehog "European hedgehog") and [badger](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_badger "European badger"), are very common, whereas others, like the [Irish hare](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountain_hare "Mountain hare"), [red deer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_deer "Red deer") and [pine marten](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pine_marten "Pine marten") are less so. Aquatic wildlife, such as species of sea turtle, shark, seal, whale, and dolphin, are common off the coast. About 400 species of birds have been recorded in Ireland. Many of these are migratory, including the [barn swallow](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barn_swallow "Barn swallow"). + +[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Irl-female_red_deer_Killarney.jpg/220px-Irl-female_red_deer_Killarney.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Irl-female_red_deer_Killarney.jpg) + +[Red deer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_deer "Red deer") (*Cervus elaphus*) in [Killarney National Park](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Killarney_National_Park "Killarney National Park") + +Several different habitat types are found in Ireland, including farmland, open woodland, [temperate broadleaf and mixed forests](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperate_broadleaf_and_mixed_forests "Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests"), [conifer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conifer "Conifer") plantations, [peat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peat "Peat") bogs and a variety of coastal habitats. However, agriculture drives current land use patterns in Ireland, limiting natural habitat preserves,^[[131]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-www2000-132)^ particularly for larger wild mammals with greater territorial needs. With no large [apex predators](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apex_predator "Apex predator") in Ireland other than humans and dogs, such populations of animals as semi-wild deer that cannot be controlled by smaller predators, such as the fox, are controlled by annual [culling](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culling "Culling"). + +There are no snakes in Ireland, and only one species of reptile (the [common lizard](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viviparous_lizard "Viviparous lizard")) is native to the island. Extinct species include the [Irish elk](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_elk "Irish elk"), the [great auk](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_auk "Great auk"), [brown bear](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown_bear "Brown bear") and the [wolf](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolves_in_Ireland "Wolves in Ireland"). Some previously extinct birds, such as the [golden eagle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_eagle "Golden eagle"), have been reintroduced after decades of [extirpation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_extinction "Local extinction").^[[132]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-133)^ + +Ireland is now one of the least forested countries in Europe.^[[133]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-134)^^[[134]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-135)^ Until the end of the Middle Ages, Ireland was heavily forested. Native species include [deciduous](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deciduous "Deciduous") trees such as [oak](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oak "Oak"), [ash](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fraxinus_excelsior "Fraxinus excelsior"), [hazel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corylus_avellana "Corylus avellana"), [birch](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birch "Birch"), [alder](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alnus_glutinosa "Alnus glutinosa"), [willow](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willow "Willow"), [aspen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Populus_tremula "Populus tremula"), [rowan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sorbus_aucuparia "Sorbus aucuparia") and [hawthorn](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crataegus_monogyna "Crataegus monogyna"), as well as [evergreen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evergreen "Evergreen") trees such [Scots pine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scots_pine "Scots pine"), [yew](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxus_baccata "Taxus baccata"), [holly](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilex_aquifolium "Ilex aquifolium") and [strawberry trees](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arbutus_unedo "Arbutus unedo").^[[135]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-136)^ Only about 10% of Ireland today is woodland;^[[12]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-forest-12)^ most of this is non-native conifer [plantations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plantation "Plantation"), and only 2% is native woodland.^[[13]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-forest2-13)^^[[14]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-forest3-14)^ The average woodland cover of European countries is over 33%.^[[12]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-forest-12)^ In the Republic, about 389,356 hectares (3,893.56 km^2^) is owned by the state, mainly by the forestry service [Coillte](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coillte "Coillte").^[[12]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-forest-12)^ Remnants of native forest can be found scattered around the island, in particular in the [Killarney National Park](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Killarney_National_Park "Killarney National Park"). + +[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Gorse-Ulex_europaeus.jpg/220px-Gorse-Ulex_europaeus.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gorse-Ulex_europaeus.jpg) + +Furze (*[Ulex europaeus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulex_europaeus "Ulex europaeus")*) + +Much of the land is now covered with pasture and there are many species of wild-flower. Gorse (*[Ulex europaeus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulex_europaeus "Ulex europaeus")*), a wild [furze](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Furze "Furze"), is commonly found growing in the uplands and ferns are plentiful in the more moist regions, especially in the western parts. It is home to hundreds of plant species, some of them unique to the island, and has been "invaded" by some grasses, such as *[Spartina anglica](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spartina_anglica "Spartina anglica")*.^[[136]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-137)^ + +The algal and seaweed flora is that of the cold-temperate variety. The total number of species is 574^[[137]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-Guiry_and_Nic_Dhonncha_01-138)^ The island has been invaded by some algae, some of which are now well established.^[[138]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-Minchin_01-139)^ + +Because of its mild climate, many species, including [sub-tropical](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subtropics "Subtropics") species such as [palm trees](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arecaceae "Arecaceae"), are grown in Ireland. [Phytogeographically](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phytogeography "Phytogeography"), Ireland belongs to the Atlantic European province of the [Circumboreal Region](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circumboreal_Region "Circumboreal Region") within the [Boreal Kingdom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boreal_Kingdom "Boreal Kingdom"). The island can be subdivided into two [ecoregions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecoregion "Ecoregion"): the Celtic broadleaf forests and North Atlantic moist mixed forests. + +### Impact of agriculture + +[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Silage_Harvesting_Cadamstown.jpg/220px-Silage_Harvesting_Cadamstown.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Silage_Harvesting_Cadamstown.jpg) + +[Silage](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silage "Silage") harvesting in Clonard, [County Meath](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_Meath "County Meath") + +The long history of agricultural production, coupled with modern intensive agricultural methods such as pesticide and fertiliser use and runoff from contaminants into streams, rivers and lakes, has placed pressure on biodiversity in Ireland.^[[139]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-140)^^[[140]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-141)^ A land of green fields for crop cultivation and cattle rearing limits the space available for the establishment of native wild species. Hedgerows, however, traditionally used for maintaining and demarcating land boundaries, act as a refuge for native wild flora. This ecosystem stretches across the countryside and acts as a network of connections to preserve remnants of the ecosystem that once covered the island. Subsidies under the [Common Agricultural Policy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_Agricultural_Policy "Common Agricultural Policy"), which supported agricultural practices that preserved hedgerow environments, are undergoing reforms. The Common Agricultural Policy had in the past subsidised potentially destructive agricultural practices, for example by emphasising production without placing limits on indiscriminate use of fertilisers and pesticides; but reforms have gradually decoupled subsidies from production levels and introduced environmental and other requirements.^[[141]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-cap_reforms-142)^ 32% of Ireland's greenhouse gas emissions are correlated to agriculture.^[[142]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-143)^ Forested areas typically consist of monoculture plantations of non-native species, which may result in habitats that are not suitable for supporting native species of invertebrates. Natural areas require fencing to prevent over-grazing by [deer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deer_of_Ireland "Deer of Ireland") and sheep that roam over uncultivated areas. Grazing in this manner is one of the main factors preventing the natural regeneration of forests across many regions of the country.^[[143]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-144)^ + +Demographics +------------ + +Main articles: [Irish people](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_people "Irish people"), [Demographics of the Republic of Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics_of_the_Republic_of_Ireland "Demographics of the Republic of Ireland"), and [Demographics of Northern Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics_of_Northern_Ireland "Demographics of Northern Ireland") + +[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Catholicism_in_Ireland.png/220px-Catholicism_in_Ireland.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Catholicism_in_Ireland.png) + +Proportion of respondents to the Ireland census 2011 or the Northern Ireland census 2011 who stated they were Catholic. Areas in which Catholics are in the majority are blue. Areas in which Catholics are in a minority are red. + +The population of Ireland is just over 7 million, of which approximately 5.1 million reside in the Republic of Ireland and 1.9 million reside in Northern Ireland.^[[11]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-2022population-11)^ + +People have lived in Ireland for over 9,000 years. Early historical and genealogical records note the existence of major groups such as the *[Cruthin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cruthin "Cruthin")*, *[Corcu Loígde](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corcu_Lo%C3%ADgde "Corcu Loígde")*, *[Dál Riata](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%A1l_Riata "Dál Riata")*, *[Dáirine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%A1irine "Dáirine")*, *[Deirgtine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deirgtine "Deirgtine")*, *[Delbhna](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delbhna "Delbhna")*, *[Érainn](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89rainn "Érainn")*, *[Laigin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laigin "Laigin")*, *[Ulaid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulaid "Ulaid")*. Later major groups included the *[Connachta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connachta "Connachta")*, *[Ciannachta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciannachta "Ciannachta")*, *[Eóganachta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E%C3%B3ganachta "Eóganachta")*. Smaller groups included the *aithechthúatha* (see *[Attacotti](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attacotti "Attacotti")*), *[Cálraighe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A1lraighe "Cálraighe")*, *[Cíarraige](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%ADarraige "Cíarraige")*, *[Conmaicne](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conmaicne "Conmaicne")*, *[Dartraighe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dartraighe "Dartraighe")*, *[Déisi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%A9isi "Déisi")*, *[Éile](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89ile "Éile")*, *[Fir Bolg](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fir_Bolg "Fir Bolg")*, *[Fortuatha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fortuatha "Fortuatha")*, *[Gailenga](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gailenga "Gailenga")*, *[Gamanraige](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamanraige "Gamanraige")*, *[Mairtine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mairtine "Mairtine")*, *[Múscraige](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%BAscraige "Múscraige")*, *[Partraige](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partraige "Partraige")*, *[Soghain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soghain "Soghain")*, *[Uaithni](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uaithni "Uaithni")*, *[Uí Maine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U%C3%AD_Maine "Uí Maine")*, *[Uí Liatháin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U%C3%AD_Liath%C3%A1in "Uí Liatháin")*. Many survived into late medieval times, others vanished as they became politically unimportant. Over the past 1,200 years, [Vikings](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vikings "Vikings"), [Normans](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normans "Normans"), [Welsh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welsh_people "Welsh people"), [Flemings](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flemings "Flemings"), [Scots](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_people "Scottish people"), English, [Africans](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_diaspora "African diaspora") and Eastern Europeans have all added to the population and have had significant influences on Irish culture. + +The population of Ireland rose rapidly from the 16th century until the mid-19th century, interrupted briefly by the [Famine of 1740--41](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Famine_(1740%E2%80%9341) "Irish Famine (1740--41)"), which killed roughly two-fifths of the island's population. The population rebounded and multiplied over the next century, but the Great Famine of the 1840s caused one million deaths and forced over one million more to emigrate in its immediate wake. Over the following century, the population was reduced by over half, at a time when the general trend in European countries was for populations to rise by an average of three-fold. + +Ireland's largest religious group is Christianity. The largest denomination is [Roman Catholicism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catholicism "Roman Catholicism"), representing over 73% of the island (and about 87% of the Republic of Ireland). Most of the rest of the population adhere to one of the various [Protestant](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestant "Protestant") denominations (about 48% of Northern Ireland).^[[144]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-niprotestants-145)^ The largest is the [Anglican](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglicanism "Anglicanism") [Church of Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_Ireland "Church of Ireland"). The [Muslim community](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam_in_Ireland "Islam in Ireland") is growing in Ireland, mostly through increased immigration, with a 50% increase in the republic between the 2006 and 2011 census.^[[145]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-146)^ The island has a small [Jewish community](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Ireland "History of the Jews in Ireland"). About 4% of the Republic's population and about 14% of the Northern Ireland population^[[144]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-niprotestants-145)^ describe themselves as of no religion. In a 2010 survey conducted on behalf of the [Irish Times](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Times "Irish Times"), 32% of respondents said they went to a religious service more than once per week. + +### Divisions and settlements + +Further information: [Provinces of Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provinces_of_Ireland "Provinces of Ireland"), [Counties of Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counties_of_Ireland "Counties of Ireland"), and [City status in Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_status_in_Ireland "City status in Ireland") + +[![Ireland is located in island of Ireland](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Provinces_of_Ireland_location_map.svg/200px-Provinces_of_Ireland_location_map.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Provinces_of_Ireland_location_map.svg "Ireland is located in island of Ireland") + +![Leinster](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Coat_of_arms_of_Leinster.svg/33px-Coat_of_arms_of_Leinster.svg.png) + +[Leinster](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leinster "Leinster") + +![Connacht](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Coat_of_arms_of_Connacht.svg/33px-Coat_of_arms_of_Connacht.svg.png) + +[Connacht](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connacht "Connacht") + +![Ulster](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Coat_of_arms_of_Ulster.svg/33px-Coat_of_arms_of_Ulster.svg.png) + +[Ulster](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulster "Ulster") + +![Munster](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Coat_of_arms_of_Munster.svg/33px-Coat_of_arms_of_Munster.svg.png) + +[Munster](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Munster "Munster") + +[class=notpageimage|](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Provinces_of_Ireland_location_map.svg "File:Provinces of Ireland location map.svg") + +[Provinces of Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provinces_of_Ireland "Provinces of Ireland") + +Traditionally, Ireland is subdivided into [four provinces](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provinces_of_Ireland "Provinces of Ireland"): [Connacht](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connacht "Connacht") (west), [Leinster](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leinster "Leinster") (east), [Munster](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Munster "Munster") (south), and [Ulster](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulster "Ulster") (north). In a system that developed between the 13th and 17th centuries,^[[146]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-147)^ Ireland has [32 traditional counties](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counties_of_Ireland "Counties of Ireland"). Twenty-six of these counties are in the Republic of Ireland, and [six are in Northern Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counties_of_Northern_Ireland "Counties of Northern Ireland"). The six counties that constitute Northern Ireland are all in the province of Ulster (which has nine counties in total). As such, *Ulster* is often used as a synonym for Northern Ireland, although the two are not coterminous. In the Republic of Ireland, counties form the basis of the system of local government. Counties [Dublin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_Dublin "County Dublin"), [Cork](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_Cork "County Cork"), [Limerick](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_Limerick "County Limerick"), [Galway](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_Galway "County Galway"), [Waterford](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_Waterford "County Waterford") and [Tipperary](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_Tipperary "County Tipperary") have been broken up into smaller administrative areas. However, they are still treated as counties for cultural and some official purposes, for example, postal addresses and by the [Ordnance Survey Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordnance_Survey_Ireland "Ordnance Survey Ireland"). Counties in Northern Ireland are [no longer used](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_government_in_Northern_Ireland "Local government in Northern Ireland") for local governmental purposes,^[[147]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-148)^ but, as in the Republic, their traditional boundaries are still used for informal purposes such as sports leagues and in cultural or tourism contexts.^[[148]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-149)^ + +City status in Ireland is decided by [legislative](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legislation "Legislation") or [royal charter](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_charter "Royal charter"). Dublin, with over one million residents in the [Greater Dublin Area](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greater_Dublin_Area "Greater Dublin Area"), is the largest city on the island. Belfast, with 579,726 residents, is the largest city in Northern Ireland. City status does not directly equate with population size. For example, [Armagh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armagh "Armagh"), with 14,590 is the seat of the Church of Ireland and the [Roman Catholic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catholic "Roman Catholic") [Primate of All Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primate_of_All_Ireland "Primate of All Ireland") and was re-granted [city status](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_status_in_the_United_Kingdom#Northern_Ireland "City status in the United Kingdom") by Queen [Elizabeth II](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_II "Elizabeth II") in 1994 (having lost that status in [local government reforms of 1840](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Municipal_Corporations_(Ireland)_Act_1840 "Municipal Corporations (Ireland) Act 1840")). In the Republic of Ireland, [Kilkenny](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilkenny "Kilkenny"), the seat of the [Butler dynasty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butler_dynasty "Butler dynasty"), while no longer a city for administrative purposes (since the 2001 [Local Government Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_Government_Act_2001 "Local Government Act 2001")), is entitled by law to continue to use the description. + +| [Cities and towns by population](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_settlements_on_the_island_of_Ireland_by_population "List of settlements on the island of Ireland by population")^[[149]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-CSO_data-150)^^[[150]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-2021_populations-151)^ | +| [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Dublin_liffey.JPG/150px-Dublin_liffey.JPG)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dublin_liffey.JPG)\ +[Dublin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dublin "Dublin") + +[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Belfast_City_Hall_2.jpg/150px-Belfast_City_Hall_2.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Belfast_City_Hall_2.jpg)\ +[Belfast](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belfast "Belfast")\ + | # | Settlement | City\ +Popu­lation | Urban\ +popu­lation | Metro\ +popu­lation | [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Halla_na_Cathrach_i_gCorcaigh.jpg/150px-Halla_na_Cathrach_i_gCorcaigh.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Halla_na_Cathrach_i_gCorcaigh.jpg)\ +[Cork](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cork_(city) "Cork (city)") + +[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Thomond_Bridge_and_River_Shannon%2C_Limerick_-_geograph.org.uk_-_5141684.jpg/150px-Thomond_Bridge_and_River_Shannon%2C_Limerick_-_geograph.org.uk_-_5141684.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Thomond_Bridge_and_River_Shannon,_Limerick_-_geograph.org.uk_-_5141684.jpg)\ +[Limerick](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limerick,_Ireland "Limerick, Ireland")\ + | +| 1 | **[Dublin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dublin "Dublin")** | 592,713 | 1,263,219 | 1,458,154 | +| 2 | **[Belfast](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belfast "Belfast")** | 293,298 | | 639,000 | +| 3 | **[Cork](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cork_(city) "Cork (city)")** | 222,333 | | 305,222 | +| 4 | **[Limerick](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limerick "Limerick")** | 102,287 | | | +| 5 | **[Galway](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galway "Galway")** | 85,910 | | | +| 6 | **[Derry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derry "Derry")** | 85,279 | | | +| 7 | **[Greater Craigavon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Craigavon,_County_Armagh "Craigavon, County Armagh")** | 72,301 | | | +| 8 | **[Newtownabbey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newtownabbey "Newtownabbey")**^[[a]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-BelfastMetro-152)^ | 67,599 | | | +| 9 | **[Bangor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangor,_County_Down "Bangor, County Down")**^[[a]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-BelfastMetro-152)^ | 64,596 | | | +| 10 | **[Waterford](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterford "Waterford")** | 60,079 | | | + +Further information: [List of metropolitan areas in Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_metropolitan_areas_in_Ireland "List of metropolitan areas in Ireland") + +### Migration + +The population of Ireland collapsed dramatically during the second half of the 19th century. A population of over eight million in 1841 was reduced to slightly over four million by 1921. In part, the fall in population was caused by death from the Great Famine of 1845 to 1852, which took roughly one million lives. The remaining decline of around three million was due to the entrenched culture of emigration caused by the dire economic state of the country, lasting until the late 20th century. + +Emigration from Ireland in the 19th century contributed to the populations of England, the United States, Canada and Australia, in all of which a large [Irish diaspora](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_diaspora "Irish diaspora") lives. As of 2006, 4.3 million Canadians, or 14% of the population, were of Irish descent,^[[151]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-153)^ while around one-third of the Australian population had an element of Irish descent.^[[152]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-SMH_Irish-154)^ As of 2013, there were 40 million Irish-Americans^[[153]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-155)^ and 33 million Americans who claimed Irish ancestry.^[[154]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-156)^ + +With growing prosperity since the last decade of the 20th century, Ireland became a destination for immigrants. Since the European Union expanded to include Poland in 2004, [Polish people](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_people "Polish people") have comprised the largest number of immigrants (over 150,000)^[[155]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-157)^ from Central Europe. There has also been significant immigration from Lithuania, Czech Republic and Latvia.^[[156]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-158)^ + +[The Republic of Ireland in particular](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics_of_the_Republic_of_Ireland#Immigration "Demographics of the Republic of Ireland") has seen large-scale immigration, with 420,000 foreign nationals as of 2006, about 10% of the population.^[[157]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-autogenerated1-159)^ Nearly a quarter of births (24 percent) in 2009 were to mothers born outside of Ireland.^[[158]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-160)^ Up to 50,000 eastern and central European migrant workers left Ireland in response to the Irish financial crisis.^[[159]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-affluenceends-161)^ + +### Languages + +Main article: [Languages of Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_of_Ireland "Languages of Ireland") + +[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Irish_speakers_in_2011.png/250px-Irish_speakers_in_2011.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Irish_speakers_in_2011.png) + +Proportion of respondents who said they could speak Irish in the Ireland census in 2011 or the Northern Ireland census in 2011 + +The two official languages of the Republic of Ireland are Irish and English. Each language has produced noteworthy literature. Irish, though now only the language of a minority, was the vernacular of the Irish people for thousands of years and was possibly introduced during the [Iron Age](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Age "Iron Age"). It began to be written down after Christianisation in the 5th century and spread to Scotland and the Isle of Man, where it evolved into the [Scottish Gaelic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic "Scottish Gaelic") and [Manx](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manx_Language "Manx Language") languages respectively. + +The Irish language has a vast treasury of written texts from many centuries and is divided by linguists into [Old Irish](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Irish "Old Irish") from the 6th to 10th century, [Middle Irish](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Irish "Middle Irish") from the 10th to 13th century, Early Modern Irish until the 17th century, and the Modern Irish spoken today. It remained the dominant language of Ireland for most of those periods, having influences from [Latin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_Language "Latin Language"), [Old Norse](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Norse "Old Norse"), [French](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Norman_language "Anglo-Norman language") and English. It declined under British rule but remained the majority tongue until the early 19th century, and since then has been a minority language. + +The [Gaelic Revival](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaelic_Revival "Gaelic Revival") of the late 19th and early 20th centuries had a long-term influence. Irish is taught in mainstream Irish schools as a compulsory subject, but teaching methods have been criticised for their ineffectiveness, with most students showing little evidence of fluency even after fourteen years of instruction.^[[160]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-162)^ + +There is now a growing population of urban Irish speakers in both the Republic and Northern Ireland, especially in Dublin^[[161]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-schism-163)^^[[162]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-164)^ and Belfast,^[[163]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-165)^ with the children of such Irish speakers sometimes attending Irish-medium schools (*[Gaelscoil](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaelscoil "Gaelscoil")*). It has been argued that they tend to be more highly educated than monolingual English speakers.^[[164]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-cso.ie-166)^ Recent research suggests that urban Irish is developing in a direction of its own, both in pronunciation and grammar.^[[165]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-irishtimes.com-167)^ + +Traditional rural Irish-speaking areas, known collectively as the *[Gaeltacht](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaeltacht "Gaeltacht")*, are in linguistic decline. The main *Gaeltacht* areas are in the west, south-west and north-west, in Galway, Mayo, Donegal, western Cork and Kerry with smaller *Gaeltacht* areas near [Dungarvan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dungarvan "Dungarvan") in Waterford and in Meath.^[[166]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-168)^ + +[English in Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiberno-English "Hiberno-English") was first introduced during the Norman invasion. It was spoken by a few peasants and merchants brought over from England and was largely replaced by Irish before the Tudor conquest of Ireland. It was introduced as the official language during the Tudor and Cromwellian conquests. The Ulster plantations gave it a permanent foothold in Ulster, and it remained the official and upper-class language elsewhere, the Irish-speaking chieftains and nobility having been deposed. Language shift during the 19th century replaced Irish with English as the first language for a vast majority of the population.^[[167]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-169)^ + +Fewer than 2% of the population of the Republic of Ireland today speak Irish on a daily basis, and under 10% regularly, outside of the education system^[[168]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-170)^ and 38% of those over 15 years are classified as "Irish speakers". In Northern Ireland, English is the de facto official language, but official recognition is afforded to Irish, including specific protective measures under Part III of the [European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Charter_for_Regional_or_Minority_Languages "European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages"). A lesser status (including recognition under Part II of the Charter) is given to [Ulster Scots dialects](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulster_Scots_dialects "Ulster Scots dialects"), which are spoken by roughly 2% of Northern Ireland residents, and also spoken by some in the Republic of Ireland.^[[169]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-171)^ Since the 1960s with the increase in immigration, many more languages have been introduced, particularly deriving from Asia and Eastern Europe. + +Also native to Ireland are [Shelta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shelta_language "Shelta language"), the language of the nomadic [Irish Travellers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Travellers "Irish Travellers"),^[[170]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-McArthur-172)^ [Irish Sign Language](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Sign_Language "Irish Sign Language"), and [Northern Ireland Sign Language](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Ireland_Sign_Language "Northern Ireland Sign Language"). + +Culture +------- + +Main articles: [Culture of Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_Ireland "Culture of Ireland") and [Culture of Northern Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_Northern_Ireland "Culture of Northern Ireland") + +[![Tall stone cross, with intricate carved patterns, protected by metal railings surrounded by short cut grass. Trees are to either side, cows in open countryside are in the middle distance.](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Ardboe_Cross.jpg/170px-Ardboe_Cross.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ardboe_Cross.jpg) + +[Ardboe High Cross](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ardboe_High_Cross "Ardboe High Cross"), County Tyrone + +Ireland's culture comprises elements of the culture of ancient peoples, later immigrant and broadcast cultural influences (chiefly Gaelic culture, [Anglicisation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglicisation "Anglicisation"), [Americanisation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Americanisation "Americanisation") and aspects of broader [European culture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_culture "European culture")). In broad terms, Ireland is regarded as one of the [Celtic nations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic_nations "Celtic nations") of Europe, alongside Scotland, Wales, Cornwall, [Isle of Man](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isle_of_Man "Isle of Man") and Brittany. This combination of cultural influences is visible in the intricate designs termed *Irish [interlace](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interlace_(visual_arts) "Interlace (visual arts)")* or *[Celtic knotwork](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic_knot "Celtic knot").* These can be seen in the ornamentation of medieval religious and secular works. The style is still popular today in jewellery and graphic art,^[[171]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-BBC_1-173)^ as is the distinctive style of [traditional Irish music](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_Irish_music "Traditional Irish music") and dance, and has become indicative of modern "Celtic" culture in general. + +[Religion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religion_in_Ireland "Religion in Ireland") has played a significant role in the cultural life of the island since ancient times (and since the 17th century plantations, has been the focus of political identity and divisions on the island). Ireland's pre-Christian heritage fused with the Celtic Church following the missions of Saint Patrick in the fifth century. The Hiberno-Scottish missions, begun by the Irish monk Saint Columba, spread the Irish vision of Christianity to [pagan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagan "Pagan") England and the Frankish Empire. These missions brought written language to an illiterate population of Europe during the Dark Ages that followed the [fall of Rome](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_Rome "Fall of Rome"), earning Ireland the sobriquet, "the island of saints and scholars". + +Since the 20th century [Irish pubs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_pub "Irish pub") worldwide have become outposts of Irish culture, especially those with a full range of cultural and gastronomic offerings. + +### Arts + +[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/KellsFol032vChristEnthroned.jpg/170px-KellsFol032vChristEnthroned.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:KellsFol032vChristEnthroned.jpg) + +Illuminated page from [Book of Kells](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Kells "Book of Kells") + +#### Literature + +Main article: [Literature of Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literature_of_Ireland "Literature of Ireland") + +Ireland has made a substantial contribution to world literature in all its branches, both in Irish and English. Poetry in Irish is among the oldest [vernacular poetry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vernacular_literature "Vernacular literature") in Europe, with the earliest examples dating from the 6th century.^[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")*]^ Irish remained the dominant literary language down to the nineteenth century, despite the spread of English from the seventeenth century on. Prominent names from the medieval period and later include [Gofraidh Fionn Ó Dálaigh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gofraidh_Fionn_%C3%93_D%C3%A1laigh "Gofraidh Fionn Ó Dálaigh") (fourteenth century), [Dáibhí Ó Bruadair](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%A1ibh%C3%AD_%C3%93_Bruadair "Dáibhí Ó Bruadair") (seventeenth century) and [Aogán Ó Rathaille](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aog%C3%A1n_%C3%93_Rathaille "Aogán Ó Rathaille") (eighteenth century). [Eibhlín Dubh Ní Chonaill](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eibhl%C3%ADn_Dubh_N%C3%AD_Chonaill "Eibhlín Dubh Ní Chonaill") (c. 1743 -- c. 1800) was an outstanding poet in the oral tradition. The latter part of the nineteenth century saw a rapid replacement of Irish by English. ^[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")*]^ By 1900, however, cultural nationalists had begun the [Gaelic revival](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaelic_revival "Gaelic revival"), which saw the beginnings of modern literature in Irish. This was to produce a number of notable writers, including [Máirtín Ó Cadhain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A1irt%C3%ADn_%C3%93_Cadhain "Máirtín Ó Cadhain"), [Máire Mhac an tSaoi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A1ire_Mhac_an_tSaoi "Máire Mhac an tSaoi") and others. Irish-language publishers such as [Coiscéim](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coisc%C3%A9im "Coiscéim") and [Cló Iar-Chonnacht](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cl%C3%B3_Iar-Chonnacht "Cló Iar-Chonnacht") continue to produce scores of titles every year. + +In English, [Jonathan Swift](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonathan_Swift "Jonathan Swift"), often called the foremost satirist in the English language, gained fame for works such as *[Gulliver's Travels](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulliver%27s_Travels "Gulliver's Travels")* and *[A Modest Proposal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Modest_Proposal "A Modest Proposal")*. Other notable 18th-century writers of Irish origin included [Oliver Goldsmith](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Goldsmith "Oliver Goldsmith") and [Richard Brinsley Sheridan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Brinsley_Sheridan "Richard Brinsley Sheridan"), though they spent most of their lives in England. The Anglo-Irish novel came to the fore in the nineteenth century, featuring such writers as [Charles Kickham](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Kickham "Charles Kickham"), [William Carleton](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Carleton "William Carleton"), and (in collaboration) [Edith Somerville](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edith_Somerville "Edith Somerville") and [Violet Florence Martin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Violet_Florence_Martin "Violet Florence Martin"). The playwright and poet [Oscar Wilde](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oscar_Wilde "Oscar Wilde"), noted for his epigrams, was born in Ireland. + +In the 20th century, Ireland produced four winners of the [Nobel Prize for Literature](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_Prize_for_Literature "Nobel Prize for Literature"): [George Bernard Shaw](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Bernard_Shaw "George Bernard Shaw"), [William Butler Yeats](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Butler_Yeats "William Butler Yeats"), [Samuel Beckett](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Beckett "Samuel Beckett") and [Seamus Heaney](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seamus_Heaney "Seamus Heaney"). Although not a Nobel Prize winner, [James Joyce](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Joyce "James Joyce") is widely considered to be one of the most significant writers of the 20th century. Joyce's 1922 novel *[Ulysses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulysses_(novel) "Ulysses (novel)")* is considered one of the most important works of [Modernist literature](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernist_literature "Modernist literature") and his life is celebrated annually on 16 June in Dublin as "[Bloomsday](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloomsday "Bloomsday")".^[[172]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-174)^ A comparable writer in Irish is [Máirtín Ó Cadhain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A1irt%C3%ADn_%C3%93_Cadhain "Máirtín Ó Cadhain"), whose 1949 novel *[Cré na Cille](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cr%C3%A9_na_Cille "Cré na Cille")* is regarded as a modernist masterpiece and has been translated into several languages. + +Modern Irish literature is often connected with its rural heritage^[[173]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-175)^ through English-language writers such as [John McGahern](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_McGahern "John McGahern") and Seamus Heaney and Irish-language writers such as [Máirtín Ó Direáin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A1irt%C3%ADn_%C3%93_Dire%C3%A1in "Máirtín Ó Direáin") and others from the Gaeltacht. + +[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Revolutionary_Joyce.jpg/170px-Revolutionary_Joyce.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Revolutionary_Joyce.jpg) + +[James Joyce](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Joyce "James Joyce"), one of the most significant writers of the 20th century + +#### Music and dance + +Main articles: [Music of Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Ireland "Music of Ireland") and [Irish dance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_dance "Irish dance") + +Music has been in evidence in Ireland since prehistoric times.^[[174]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-176)^ Although in the early Middle Ages the church was "quite unlike its counterpart in continental Europe",^[[175]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-177)^ there was a considerable interchange between monastic settlements in Ireland and the rest of Europe that contributed to what is known as [Gregorian chant](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregorian_chant "Gregorian chant"). Outside religious establishments, musical genres in early Gaelic Ireland are referred to as a triad of weeping music (*goltraige*), laughing music (*geantraige*) and sleeping music (*suantraige*).^[[176]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-178)^ Vocal and instrumental music (e.g. for the harp, pipes, and various [string instruments](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String_instrument "String instrument")) was transmitted orally, but the [Irish harp](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_harp "Irish harp"), in particular, was of such significance that it became Ireland's national symbol. Classical music following European models first developed in urban areas, in establishments of Anglo-Irish rule such as [Dublin Castle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dublin_Castle "Dublin Castle"), [St Patrick's Cathedral](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Patrick%27s_Cathedral,_Dublin "St Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin") and [Christ Church](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christ_Church_Cathedral,_Dublin "Christ Church Cathedral, Dublin") as well as the country houses of the Anglo-Irish ascendancy, with the first performance of [Handel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Frideric_Handel "George Frideric Handel")'s *[Messiah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messiah_(Handel) "Messiah (Handel)")* (1742) being among the highlights of the baroque era. In the 19th century, public concerts provided access to classical music to all classes of society. Yet, for political and financial reasons Ireland has been too small to provide a living to many musicians, so the names of the better-known [Irish composers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Irish_classical_composers "List of Irish classical composers") of this time belong to emigrants. + +Irish [traditional music](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folk_music "Folk music") and dance have seen a surge in popularity and global coverage since the 1960s. In the middle years of the 20th century, as Irish society was modernising, traditional music had fallen out of favour, especially in urban areas.^[[177]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-179)^ However during the 1960s, there was a revival of interest in Irish traditional music led by groups such as [the Dubliners](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Dubliners "The Dubliners"), [the Chieftains](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Chieftains "The Chieftains"), [the Wolfe Tones](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Wolfe_Tones "The Wolfe Tones"), the [Clancy Brothers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clancy_Brothers "Clancy Brothers"), [Sweeney's Men](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweeney%27s_Men "Sweeney's Men") and individuals like [Seán Ó Riada](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Se%C3%A1n_%C3%93_Riada "Seán Ó Riada") and [Christy Moore](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christy_Moore "Christy Moore"). Groups and musicians including [Horslips](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horslips "Horslips"), [Van Morrison](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Van_Morrison "Van Morrison") and [Thin Lizzy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thin_Lizzy "Thin Lizzy") incorporated elements of Irish traditional music into contemporary rock music and, during the 1970s and 1980s, the distinction between traditional and rock musicians became blurred, with many individuals regularly crossing over between these styles of playing. This trend can be seen more recently in the work of artists like [Enya](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enya "Enya"), [the Saw Doctors](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Saw_Doctors "The Saw Doctors"), [the Corrs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Corrs "The Corrs"), [Sinéad O'Connor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sin%C3%A9ad_O%27Connor "Sinéad O'Connor"), [Clannad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clannad_(musical_group) "Clannad (musical group)"), [the Cranberries](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Cranberries "The Cranberries") and [the Pogues](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Pogues "The Pogues") among others. + +#### Art + +Main articles: [Art of Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_of_Ireland "Art of Ireland") and [Architecture of Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture_of_Ireland "Architecture of Ireland") + +The earliest known Irish graphic art and sculpture are Neolithic carvings found at sites such as Newgrange^[[178]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-180)^ and is traced through Bronze Age artefacts and the religious carvings and [illuminated manuscripts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illuminated_manuscripts "Illuminated manuscripts") of the medieval period. During the course of the 19th and 20th centuries, a strong tradition of painting emerged, including such figures as [John Butler Yeats](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Butler_Yeats "John Butler Yeats"), [William Orpen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Orpen "William Orpen"), [Jack Yeats](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Yeats "Jack Yeats") and [Louis le Brocquy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_le_Brocquy "Louis le Brocquy"). Contemporary Irish visual artists of note include [Sean Scully](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sean_Scully "Sean Scully"), [Kevin Abosch](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kevin_Abosch "Kevin Abosch"), and [Alice Maher](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alice_Maher "Alice Maher"). + +#### Drama and theatre + +Main article: [Irish theatre](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_theatre "Irish theatre") + +The Republic of Ireland's national theatre is the [Abbey Theatre](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbey_Theatre "Abbey Theatre"), which was founded in 1904, and the national Irish-language theatre is *[An Taibhdhearc](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Taibhdhearc "An Taibhdhearc")*, which was established in 1928 in [Galway](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galway "Galway").^[[179]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-181)^^[[180]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-182)^ Playwrights such as [Seán O'Casey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Se%C3%A1n_O%27Casey "Seán O'Casey"), [Brian Friel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_Friel "Brian Friel"), [Sebastian Barry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sebastian_Barry "Sebastian Barry"), [Conor McPherson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conor_McPherson "Conor McPherson") and [Billy Roche](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billy_Roche "Billy Roche") are internationally renowned.^[[181]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-183)^ + +### Science + +[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Robert_Boyle_0001.jpg/170px-Robert_Boyle_0001.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Robert_Boyle_0001.jpg) + +[Robert Boyle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Boyle "Robert Boyle") formulated Boyle's Law. + +The Irish philosopher and theologian [Johannes Scotus Eriugena](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Scotus_Eriugena "Johannes Scotus Eriugena") was considered one of the leading intellectuals of the early Middle Ages. Sir [Ernest Henry Shackleton](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Henry_Shackleton "Ernest Henry Shackleton"), an Irish explorer, was one of the principal figures of Antarctic exploration. He, along with his expedition, made the first ascent of [Mount Erebus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Erebus "Mount Erebus") and the discovery of the approximate location of the [South Magnetic Pole](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Magnetic_Pole "South Magnetic Pole"). [Robert Boyle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Boyle "Robert Boyle") was a 17th-century natural philosopher, chemist, physicist, inventor and early [gentleman scientist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gentleman_scientist "Gentleman scientist"). He is largely regarded as one of the founders of modern chemistry and is best known for the formulation of [Boyle's law](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boyle%27s_law "Boyle's law").^[[182]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-ucc_boyle_boi-184)^ + +19th-century physicist, [John Tyndall](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Tyndall "John Tyndall"), discovered the [Tyndall effect](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyndall_effect "Tyndall effect"). [Father Nicholas Joseph Callan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Father_Nicholas_Joseph_Callan "Father Nicholas Joseph Callan"), professor of natural philosophy in [Maynooth College](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maynooth_College "Maynooth College"), is best known for his invention of the [induction coil](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Induction_coil "Induction coil"), [transformer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformer "Transformer") and he discovered an early method of [galvanisation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galvanisation "Galvanisation") in the 19th century. + +Other notable Irish [physicists](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physicists "Physicists") include [Ernest Walton](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Walton "Ernest Walton"), winner of the 1951 [Nobel Prize in Physics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics "Nobel Prize in Physics"). With [Sir John Douglas Cockcroft](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_John_Douglas_Cockcroft "Sir John Douglas Cockcroft"), he was the first to split the nucleus of the atom by artificial means and made contributions to the development of a new theory of [wave equation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wave_equation "Wave equation").^[[183]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-185)^ William Thomson, or [Lord Kelvin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord_Kelvin "Lord Kelvin"), is the person whom the absolute temperature unit, the [kelvin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin "Kelvin"), is named after. Sir [Joseph Larmor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Larmor "Joseph Larmor"), a physicist and mathematician, made innovations in the understanding of electricity, dynamics, thermodynamics and the electron theory of matter. His most influential work was Aether and Matter, a book on theoretical physics published in 1900.^[[184]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-physicsworld-186)^ + +[George Johnstone Stoney](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Johnstone_Stoney "George Johnstone Stoney") introduced the term *[electron](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron "Electron")* in 1891. [John Stewart Bell](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Stewart_Bell "John Stewart Bell") was the originator of [Bell's Theorem](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell%27s_Theorem "Bell's Theorem") and a paper concerning the discovery of the [Bell-Jackiw-Adler anomaly](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chiral_anomaly "Chiral anomaly") and was nominated for a Nobel prize.^[[185]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-187)^ The astronomer [Jocelyn Bell Burnell](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jocelyn_Bell_Burnell "Jocelyn Bell Burnell"), from [Lurgan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lurgan "Lurgan"), County Armagh, discovered pulsars in 1967. Notable mathematicians include Sir [William Rowan Hamilton](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Rowan_Hamilton "William Rowan Hamilton"), famous for work in [classical mechanics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamiltonian_mechanics "Hamiltonian mechanics") and the invention of [quaternions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quaternions "Quaternions"). [Francis Ysidro Edgeworth](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Ysidro_Edgeworth "Francis Ysidro Edgeworth")'s contribution, the [Edgeworth Box](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edgeworth_Box "Edgeworth Box"). remains influential in neo-classical microeconomic theory to this day; while [Richard Cantillon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Cantillon "Richard Cantillon") inspired [Adam Smith](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smith "Adam Smith"), among others. [John B. Cosgrave](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_B._Cosgrave "John B. Cosgrave") was a specialist in [number theory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Number_theory "Number theory") and discovered a 2000-digit [prime number](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_number "Prime number") in 1999 and a record composite [Fermat number](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermat_number "Fermat number") in 2003. [John Lighton Synge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Lighton_Synge "John Lighton Synge") made progress in different fields of science, including mechanics and geometrical methods in general relativity. He had mathematician [John Nash](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Forbes_Nash_Jr. "John Forbes Nash Jr.") as one of his students. [Kathleen Lonsdale](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kathleen_Lonsdale "Kathleen Lonsdale"), born in Ireland and most known for her work with [crystallography](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_crystallography "X-ray crystallography"), became the first female president of the British Association for the Advancement of Science.^[[186]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-188)^ + +Ireland has nine universities, seven in the Republic of Ireland and two in Northern Ireland, including [Trinity College Dublin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinity_College_Dublin "Trinity College Dublin") and the [University College Dublin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_College_Dublin "University College Dublin"), as well as numerous third-level colleges and institutes and a branch of the Open University, the [Open University in Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_University_in_Ireland "Open University in Ireland"). Ireland was ranked 22nd in the [Global Innovation Index](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Innovation_Index "Global Innovation Index") in 2023, down from 12th in 2019.^[[187]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-189)^^[[188]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-190)^ + +### Sports + +Main article: [Sport in Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sport_in_Ireland "Sport in Ireland") + +See also: [List of Irish sports people](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Irish_people#Sport "List of Irish people") + +[Gaelic football](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaelic_football "Gaelic football") is the most popular sport in Ireland in terms of match attendance and community involvement, with about 2,600 clubs on the island. In 2003 it represented 34% of total sports attendances at events in Ireland and abroad, followed by [hurling](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hurling "Hurling") at 23%, soccer at 16% and [rugby](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rugby_football "Rugby football") at 8%.^[[189]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-esri-191)^ The [All-Ireland Football Final](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All-Ireland_Football_Final "All-Ireland Football Final") is the most watched event in the sporting calendar.^[[190]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-192)^ Soccer is the most widely played team game on the island and the most popular in Northern Ireland.^[[189]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-esri-191)^^[[191]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-FootballSoccer-193)^ + +Other sporting activities with the highest levels of playing participation include swimming, golf, aerobics, cycling, and billiards/snooker.^[[192]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-194)^ Many other sports are also played and followed, including [boxing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boxing "Boxing"), [cricket](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cricket "Cricket"), fishing, [greyhound racing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greyhound_racing "Greyhound racing"), [handball](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaelic_handball "Gaelic handball"), [hockey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_hockey "Field hockey"), horse racing, [motor sport](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_sport "Motor sport"), [show jumping](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Show_jumping "Show jumping") and tennis. + +The island fields a single international team in most sports. One notable exception to this is association football, although both associations continued to field international teams under the name "Ireland" until the 1950s. The sport is also the most notable exception where the [Republic of Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland_national_football_team "Republic of Ireland national football team") and [Northern Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Ireland_national_football_team "Northern Ireland national football team") field separate international teams. Northern Ireland has produced two World Snooker Champions. + +#### Field sports + +Main articles: [Gaelic games](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaelic_games "Gaelic games"), [Rugby union in Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rugby_union_in_Ireland "Rugby union in Ireland"), [Rugby league in Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rugby_league_in_Ireland "Rugby league in Ireland"), [Association football in the Republic of Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_football_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland "Association football in the Republic of Ireland"), and [Association football in Northern Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_football_in_Northern_Ireland "Association football in Northern Ireland") + +[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Tyrone_Blanket_Defence.jpg/220px-Tyrone_Blanket_Defence.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tyrone_Blanket_Defence.jpg) + +[Tyrone](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyrone_GAA "Tyrone GAA") v [Kerry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerry_GAA "Kerry GAA") in the [2005 All-Ireland Senior Football Championship Final](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2005_All-Ireland_Senior_Football_Championship_Final "2005 All-Ireland Senior Football Championship Final") + +Gaelic football, hurling and Gaelic handball are the best-known Irish traditional sports, collectively known as Gaelic games. Gaelic games are governed by the [Gaelic Athletic Association](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaelic_Athletic_Association "Gaelic Athletic Association") (GAA), with the exception of women's Gaelic football and camogie (women's variant of hurling), which are governed by separate organisations. The headquarters of the GAA (and the main stadium) is located at ^[[193]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-195)^ [Croke Park](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Croke_Park "Croke Park") in north Dublin and has a capacity of 82,500. Many major GAA games are played there, including the semi-finals and finals of the [All-Ireland Senior Football Championship](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All-Ireland_Senior_Football_Championship "All-Ireland Senior Football Championship") and [All-Ireland Senior Hurling Championship](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All-Ireland_Senior_Hurling_Championship "All-Ireland Senior Hurling Championship"). During the redevelopment of the [Lansdowne Road stadium](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lansdowne_Road "Lansdowne Road") in 2007--2010, international rugby and soccer were played there.^[[194]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-196)^ All GAA players, even at the highest level, are amateurs, receiving no wages, although they are permitted to receive a limited amount of sport-related income from commercial sponsorship. + +The [Irish Football Association](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Football_Association "Irish Football Association") (IFA) was originally the governing body for soccer across the island. The game has been played in an organised fashion in Ireland since the 1870s, with [Cliftonville F.C.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cliftonville_F.C. "Cliftonville F.C.") in Belfast being Ireland's oldest club. It was most popular, especially in its first decades, around Belfast and in Ulster. However, some clubs based outside Belfast thought that the IFA largely favoured Ulster-based clubs in such matters as selection for the national team. In 1921, following an incident in which, despite an earlier promise, the IFA moved an [Irish Cup](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Cup "Irish Cup") semi-final replay from Dublin to Belfast,^[[195]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-197)^ Dublin-based clubs broke away to form the Football Association of the Irish Free State. Today the southern association is known as the [Football Association of Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Football_Association_of_Ireland "Football Association of Ireland") (FAI). Despite being initially blacklisted by the [Home Nations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_Nations "Home Nations")' associations, the FAI was recognised by [FIFA](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FIFA "FIFA") in 1923 and organised its first international fixture in 1926 (against [Italy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy_national_football_team "Italy national football team")). However, both the IFA and FAI continued to select their teams from the whole of Ireland, with some players earning international caps for matches with both teams. Both also referred to their respective teams as *Ireland*. + +[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Paul_O%27Connell_Ireland_Rugby.jpg/170px-Paul_O%27Connell_Ireland_Rugby.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Paul_O%27Connell_Ireland_Rugby.jpg) + +[Paul O'Connell](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_O%27Connell "Paul O'Connell") reaching for the ball during a [line out](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line-out_(rugby_union) "Line-out (rugby union)") against [Argentina](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argentina_national_rugby_union_team "Argentina national rugby union team") in 2007 + +In 1950, FIFA directed the associations only to select players from within their respective territories and, in 1953, directed that the FAI's team be known only as "Republic of Ireland" and that the IFA's team be known as "Northern Ireland" (with certain exceptions). Northern Ireland qualified for the [World Cup](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FIFA_World_Cup "FIFA World Cup") finals in [1958](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1958_FIFA_World_Cup "1958 FIFA World Cup") (reaching the quarter-finals), [1982](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1982_FIFA_World_Cup "1982 FIFA World Cup") and [1986](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1986_FIFA_World_Cup "1986 FIFA World Cup") and the [European Championship](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UEFA_European_Championship "UEFA European Championship") in [2016](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UEFA_Euro_2016 "UEFA Euro 2016"). The Republic qualified for the World Cup finals in [1990](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1990_FIFA_World_Cup "1990 FIFA World Cup") (reaching the quarter-finals), [1994](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1994_FIFA_World_Cup "1994 FIFA World Cup"), [2002](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2002_FIFA_World_Cup "2002 FIFA World Cup") and the European Championship in [1988](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UEFA_Euro_1988 "UEFA Euro 1988"), [2012](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UEFA_Euro_2012 "UEFA Euro 2012") and 2016. Across Ireland, there is significant interest in the [English](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Premier_League "Premier League") and, to a lesser extent, [Scottish](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Premier_League "Scottish Premier League") soccer leagues. + +Ireland fields a single [national rugby team](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland_national_rugby_union_team "Ireland national rugby union team") and a single association, the [Irish Rugby Football Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Rugby_Football_Union "Irish Rugby Football Union"), governs the sport across the island. The Irish rugby team have played in every [Rugby World Cup](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rugby_World_Cup "Rugby World Cup"), making the quarter-finals in eight of them.^[[196]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-198)^ Ireland also hosted games during the [1991](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1991_Rugby_World_Cup "1991 Rugby World Cup") and the [1999 Rugby World Cups](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1999_Rugby_World_Cup "1999 Rugby World Cup") (including a quarter-final). There are four professional Irish teams; all four play in the [Pro14](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pro14 "Pro14") and at least three compete for the [Heineken Cup](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heineken_Cup "Heineken Cup"). Irish rugby has become increasingly competitive at both the international and provincial levels since the sport went professional in 1994. During that time, [Ulster](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulster_Rugby "Ulster Rugby") ([1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1998%E2%80%9399_Heineken_Cup "1998--99 Heineken Cup")),^[[197]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-heineken_champions_archive-199)^ [Munster](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Munster_Rugby "Munster Rugby") ([2006](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2005%E2%80%9306_Heineken_Cup "2005--06 Heineken Cup")^[[198]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-200)^ and [2008](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007%E2%80%9308_Heineken_Cup "2007--08 Heineken Cup"))^[[197]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-heineken_champions_archive-199)^ and [Leinster](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leinster_Rugby "Leinster Rugby") ([2009](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008%E2%80%9309_Heineken_Cup "2008--09 Heineken Cup"), [2011](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010%E2%80%9311_Heineken_Cup "2010--11 Heineken Cup") and [2012](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011%E2%80%9312_Heineken_Cup "2011--12 Heineken Cup"))^[[197]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-heineken_champions_archive-199)^ have won the Heineken Cup. In addition to this, the Irish International side has had increased success in the [Six Nations Championship](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Six_Nations_Championship "Six Nations Championship") against the other European elite sides. This success, including [Triple Crowns](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triple_Crown_(rugby_union) "Triple Crown (rugby union)") in 2004, 2006 and 2007, culminated with a clean sweep of victories, known as a [Grand Slam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Slam_(rugby_union) "Grand Slam (rugby union)"), in 2009 and 2018.^[[199]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-201)^ + +#### Boxing + +Main article: [Boxing in Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boxing_in_Ireland "Boxing in Ireland") + +Amateur boxing on the island of Ireland is governed by the [Irish Athletic Boxing Association](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Athletic_Boxing_Association "Irish Athletic Boxing Association"). Ireland has won more medals in boxing than in any other Olympic sport. [Michael Carruth](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Carruth "Michael Carruth") won a gold medal and [Wayne McCullough](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayne_McCullough "Wayne McCullough") won a silver medal in the [Barcelona Olympic Games](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1992_Summer_Olympics "1992 Summer Olympics"). In 2008 Kenneth Egan won a silver medal in the Beijing Games.^[[200]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-202)^ [Paddy Barnes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paddy_Barnes "Paddy Barnes") secured bronze in those games and gold in the [2010 European Amateur Boxing Championships](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010_European_Amateur_Boxing_Championships "2010 European Amateur Boxing Championships") (where Ireland came 2nd in the overall medal table) and [2010 Commonwealth Games](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010_Commonwealth_Games "2010 Commonwealth Games"). [Katie Taylor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katie_Taylor "Katie Taylor") has won gold in every European and World championship since 2005. In August 2012 at the Olympic Games in London, Taylor created history by becoming the first Irish woman to win a gold medal in boxing in the 60 kg lightweight.^[[201]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-203)^ More recently, Kellie Harrington won a gold medal at the 2020 Tokyo Olympics.^[[202]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-204)^ + +#### Other sports + +Main articles: [Horse racing in Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horse_racing_in_Ireland "Horse racing in Ireland"), [Athletics in Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athletics_in_Ireland "Athletics in Ireland"), and [Golf in Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golf_in_Ireland "Golf in Ireland") + +[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Irl-Sligo_horse_racing.jpg/220px-Irl-Sligo_horse_racing.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Irl-Sligo_horse_racing.jpg) + +[Horse racing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horse_racing "Horse racing") in [Sligo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sligo "Sligo") + +Horse racing and greyhound racing are both popular in Ireland. There are frequent horse race meetings and greyhound stadiums are well-attended. The island is noted for the breeding and training of race horses and is also a large exporter of racing dogs.^[[203]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-205)^ The horse racing sector is largely concentrated in the County Kildare.^[[204]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-206)^ + +Irish athletics is an all-Ireland sport governed by [Athletics Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athletics_Ireland "Athletics Ireland"). [Sonia O'Sullivan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonia_O%27Sullivan "Sonia O'Sullivan") won two medals at 5,000 metres on the track; gold at the 1995 [World Championships](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IAAF_World_Championships_in_Athletics "IAAF World Championships in Athletics") and silver at the [2000 Sydney Olympics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2000_Summer_Olympics "2000 Summer Olympics"). [Gillian O'Sullivan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gillian_O%27Sullivan "Gillian O'Sullivan") won silver in the 20k walk at the 2003 World Championships, while sprint hurdler [Derval O'Rourke](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derval_O%27Rourke "Derval O'Rourke") won gold at the 2006 World Indoor Championship in Moscow. Olive Loughnane won a silver medal in the 20k walk at the World Athletics Championships in Berlin in 2009.^[[205]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-207)^ + +Golf is very popular, and golf tourism is a major industry attracting more than 240,000 golfing visitors annually.^[[206]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-208)^ The [2006 Ryder Cup](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006_Ryder_Cup "2006 Ryder Cup") was held at [The K Club](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Kildare_Hotel_and_Golf_Club "The Kildare Hotel and Golf Club") in County Kildare.^[[207]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-209)^ [Pádraig Harrington](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%A1draig_Harrington "Pádraig Harrington") became the first Irishman since [Fred Daly](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fred_Daly_(golfer) "Fred Daly (golfer)") in 1947 to win the [British Open](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Open_Championship "The Open Championship") at [Carnoustie](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnoustie "Carnoustie") in July 2007.^[[208]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-210)^ He successfully defended his title in July 2008^[[209]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-211)^ before going on to win the [PGA Championship](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PGA_Championship "PGA Championship") in August.^[[210]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-212)^ Harrington became the first European to win the PGA Championship in 78 years and was the first winner from Ireland. Three golfers from Northern Ireland have been particularly successful. In 2010, [Graeme McDowell](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graeme_McDowell "Graeme McDowell") became the first Irish golfer to win the [U.S. Open](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Open_(golf) "U.S. Open (golf)"), and the first European to win that tournament since 1970. [Rory McIlroy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rory_McIlroy "Rory McIlroy"), at the age of 22, won the 2011 U.S. Open, while [Darren Clarke](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darren_Clarke "Darren Clarke")'s latest victory was the [2011 Open Championship](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011_Open_Championship "2011 Open Championship") at Royal St. George's. In August 2012, McIlroy won his 2nd major championship by winning the USPGA Championship by a record margin of 8 shots. + +#### Recreation + +The west coast of Ireland, [Lahinch](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lahinch "Lahinch") and [Donegal Bay](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donegal_Bay "Donegal Bay") in particular, have popular surfing beaches, being fully exposed to the Atlantic Ocean. Donegal Bay is shaped like a funnel and catches west/south-west Atlantic winds, creating good surf, especially in winter. Since just before the year 2010, [Bundoran](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bundoran "Bundoran") has hosted European championship surfing. [Scuba diving](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scuba_diving "Scuba diving") is increasingly popular in Ireland with clear waters and large populations of sea life, particularly along the western seaboard. There are also many shipwrecks along the coast of Ireland, with some of the best [wreck dives](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wreck_dives "Wreck dives") being in [Malin Head](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malin_Head "Malin Head") and off the County Cork coast.^[[211]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-213)^ + +With thousands of lakes, over 14,000 kilometres (8,700 mi) of fish-bearing rivers and over 7,500 kilometres (4,660 mi) of [coastline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Irish_counties_by_coastline "List of Irish counties by coastline"), Ireland is a popular [angling](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angling "Angling") destination. The temperate Irish climate is suited to sport angling. While [salmon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salmon "Salmon") and [trout](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trout "Trout") fishing remain popular with anglers, salmon fishing, in particular, received a boost in 2006 with the closing of the salmon [driftnet](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Driftnet "Driftnet") fishery. [Coarse fishing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coarse_fishing "Coarse fishing") continues to increase its profile. Sea angling is developed with many beaches mapped and signposted,^[[212]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-214)^ and the range of sea angling species is around 80.^[[213]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-215)^ + +### Food and drink + +Main article: [Irish cuisine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_cuisine "Irish cuisine") + +[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Cheese_61_bg_080106.jpg/220px-Cheese_61_bg_080106.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cheese_61_bg_080106.jpg) + +[Gubbeen cheese](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gubbeen_cheese "Gubbeen cheese"), an example of the resurgence in Irish cheese making + +Food and cuisine in Ireland take their influence from the crops grown and animals farmed in the island's temperate climate and from the social and political circumstances of Irish history. For example, whilst from the Middle Ages until the arrival of the potato in the 16th century the dominant feature of the Irish economy was the herding of cattle, the number of cattle a person owned was equated to their social standing.^[[214]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-food_companion-216)^ Thus herders would avoid slaughtering a milk-producing cow.^[[214]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-food_companion-216)^ + +For this reason, pork and [white meat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_meat "White meat") were more common than beef, and thick fatty strips of salted [bacon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacon "Bacon") (known as rashers) and the eating of salted butter (i.e. a dairy product rather than beef itself) have been a central feature of the diet in Ireland since the Middle Ages.^[[214]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-food_companion-216)^ The practice of bleeding cattle and mixing the blood with milk and butter (not unlike the practice of the [Maasai](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maasai_people "Maasai people")) was common^[[215]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-217)^ and [black pudding](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_pudding "Black pudding"), made from blood, grain (usually barley) and seasoning, remains a breakfast staple in Ireland. All of these influences can be seen today in the phenomenon of the "[breakfast roll](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breakfast_roll "Breakfast roll")". + +The introduction of the potato in the second half of the 16th century heavily influenced cuisine thereafter. Great poverty encouraged a subsistence approach to food, and by the mid-19th century, the vast majority of the population sufficed with a diet of potatoes and milk.^[[216]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-218)^ A typical family, consisting of a man, a woman and four children, would eat 18 stone (110 kg) of potatoes per week.^[[214]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-food_companion-216)^ Consequently, dishes that are considered as national dishes represent a fundamental simplicity to cooking, such as the [Irish stew](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_stew "Irish stew"), [bacon and cabbage](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacon_and_cabbage "Bacon and cabbage"), [boxty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boxty "Boxty"), a type of potato pancake, or [colcannon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colcannon "Colcannon"), a dish of [mashed potatoes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mashed_potatoes "Mashed potatoes") and [kale](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kale "Kale") or [cabbage](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabbage "Cabbage").^[[214]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-food_companion-216)^ + +Since the last quarter of the 20th century, with a re-emergence of wealth in Ireland, a "New Irish Cuisine" based on traditional ingredients incorporating international influences^[[217]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-219)^ has emerged.^[[218]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-220)^ This cuisine is based on fresh vegetables, fish (especially salmon, trout, [oysters](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oyster "Oyster"), [mussels](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mussel "Mussel") and other shellfish), as well as traditional soda breads and the wide range of hand-made [cheeses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Irish_cheeses "List of Irish cheeses") that are now being produced across the country. An example of this new cuisine is "Dublin Lawyer": lobster cooked in whiskey and cream.^[[219]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-221)^ The potato remains however a fundamental feature of this cuisine and the Irish remain the highest per capita^[[214]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-food_companion-216)^ consumers of potatoes in Europe. Traditional regional foods can be found throughout the country, for example [coddle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coddle "Coddle") in Dublin or [drisheen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drisheen "Drisheen") in Cork, both a type of sausage, or [blaa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blaa "Blaa"), a doughy white bread particular to Waterford. + +[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Distillerie_OldBushmills.jpg/220px-Distillerie_OldBushmills.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Distillerie_OldBushmills.jpg) + +The [Old Bushmills Distillery](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Bushmills_Distillery "Old Bushmills Distillery") in County Antrim + +Ireland once dominated the world's market for whiskey, producing 90% of the world's whiskey at the start of the 20th century. However, as a consequence of bootleggers during the [prohibition in the United States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prohibition_in_the_United_States "Prohibition in the United States") (who sold poor-quality whiskey bearing Irish-sounding names thus eroding the pre-prohibition popularity for Irish brands)^[[220]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-222)^ and tariffs on Irish whiskey across the British Empire during the [Anglo-Irish Trade War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Irish_Trade_War "Anglo-Irish Trade War") of the 1930s,^[[221]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-223)^ sales of Irish whiskey worldwide fell to a mere 2% by the mid-20th century.^[[222]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-224)^ In 1953, an Irish government survey, found that 50% of whiskey drinkers in the United States had never heard of [Irish whiskey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_whiskey "Irish whiskey").^[[223]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-225)^ + +Irish whiskey, as researched in 2009 by the [CNBC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNBC "CNBC") American broadcaster, remains popular domestically and has grown in international sales steadily over a few decades.^[[224]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-not_luck-226)^ Typically CNBC states Irish whiskey is not as smoky as a [Scotch whisky](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotch_whisky "Scotch whisky"), but not as sweet as [American](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_whiskey "American whiskey") or [Canadian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_whiskey "Canadian whiskey") whiskies.^[[224]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-not_luck-226)^ Whiskey forms the basis of [cream liqueurs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Cream "Irish Cream"), such as [Baileys](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baileys_Irish_Cream "Baileys Irish Cream"), and the "[Irish coffee](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_coffee "Irish coffee")" (a [cocktail](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cocktail "Cocktail") of coffee and whiskey reputedly invented at [Foynes flying-boat station](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foynes "Foynes")) is probably the best-known Irish cocktail. + +[Stout](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porter_(beer) "Porter (beer)"), a kind of [porter beer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porter_beer "Porter beer"), particularly [Guinness](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guinness "Guinness"), is typically associated with Ireland, although historically it was more closely associated with London. Porter remains very popular, although it has lost sales since the mid-20th century to [lager](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lager "Lager"). [Cider](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cider "Cider"), particularly *[Magners](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magners "Magners")* (marketed in the Republic of Ireland as *Bulmers*), is also a popular drink. [Red lemonade](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_lemonade "Red lemonade"), a soft-drink, is consumed on its own and as a mixer, particularly with whiskey.^[[225]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-227)^ + +Economy +------- + +Main articles: [Economy of the Republic of Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_the_Republic_of_Ireland "Economy of the Republic of Ireland") and [Economy of Northern Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_Northern_Ireland "Economy of Northern Ireland") + +See also: [International Financial Services Centre, Dublin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Financial_Services_Centre,_Dublin "International Financial Services Centre, Dublin") + +The GDP of the Republic of Ireland as of 2021 was €423.5 billion (nominal),^[[226]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-IMFWEOIE-228)^ and in Northern Ireland in 2021, it was £52 billion (GVA Balanced).^[[227]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-NI_GDP-229)^ The GDP per capita in the Republic of Ireland was €84,049.9 (nominal) as of 2021,^[[226]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-IMFWEOIE-228)^ and in Northern Ireland 2021 was £27,154 (GVA Balanced).^[[227]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-NI_GDP-229)^ The Republic of Ireland and the United Kingdom measure these numbers differently. + +Despite the two jurisdictions using two distinct currencies (the euro and [pound sterling](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pound_sterling "Pound sterling")), a growing amount of commercial activity is carried out on an all-Ireland basis. This has been facilitated by the two jurisdictions' former shared membership of the European Union, and there have been calls from members of the business community and policymakers for the creation of an "all-Ireland economy" to take advantage of [economies of scale](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economies_of_scale "Economies of scale") and boost competitiveness.^[[228]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-230)^ + +### Regional economics + +Below is a comparison of the regional GDP on the island of Ireland. + +| Republic of Ireland: [Northern and Western](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_and_Western_Region "Northern and Western Region") | Republic of Ireland: [Eastern and Midland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_and_Midland_Region "Eastern and Midland Region") | Republic of Ireland: [Southern](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Region,_Ireland "Southern Region, Ireland") | United Kingdom: Northern Ireland | +| GDP (2018): €22 bn^[[229]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-CSO_Regional_GDP-231)^ | GDP (2018): €175 bn^[[229]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-CSO_Regional_GDP-231)^ | GDP (2018): €127 bn^[[229]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-CSO_Regional_GDP-231)^ | GDP (2021): £52 bn^[[227]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-NI_GDP-229)^ | +| €24,926 per person^[[230]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-europa.eu-232)^ | €74,824 per person^[[230]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-europa.eu-232)^ | €77,794 per person^[[230]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-europa.eu-232)^ | £27,154 per person^[[227]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-NI_GDP-229)^ | + +### Northern Ireland trade comparison + +Below is a comparison of the goods being sold and purchased between Northern Ireland and the United Kingdom, compared with the goods being exported and imported between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland: + +Northern Ireland Sales/Exports^[[231]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-nitrade-233)^ +| | United Kingdom | Republic of Ireland | +| 2020 | £11.3 billion | £4.2 billion | +| 2021 | £12.8 billion | £5.2 billion | + +Northern Ireland Purchases/Imports^[[231]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-nitrade-233)^ +| | United Kingdom | Republic of Ireland | +| 2020 | £13.4 billion | £2.5 billion | +| 2021 | £14.4 billion | £3.1 billion | + +### Cost of living comparison + +Below is a comparison of the monthly cost of living and average wage after tax in Northern Ireland versus those in the Republic of Ireland in 2023: + +Monthly Cost of Living Comparison^[[232]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-234)^^[[233]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-235)^ +| | Northern Ireland | Republic of Ireland | +| Cost of living (1 person) | $1459 | $2198 | +| Average wage after tax | $2393 | $3010 | + +### Economic history + +Main article: [Economic history of Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_history_of_Ireland "Economic history of Ireland") + +Prior to partition in 1921, Ireland had a long history as an economic colony -- first, partially, of the Norse, via their cities (9th to 10th centuries CE), and later, to varying extents, of polities related to England. Though the climate and soil favoured certain forms of agriculture,^[[234]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-236)^ [trade barriers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade_barrier "Trade barrier") frequently hobbled its development. Repeated invasions and plantations disrupted [land-ownership](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_tenure "Land tenure"), and [multiple failed uprisings](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Rebellion_(disambiguation) "Irish Rebellion (disambiguation)") also contributed to repeated phases of [deportation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penal_transportation "Penal transportation") and of [emigration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_emigrant "Irish emigrant"). + +Salient events in the economic history of Ireland include: + +- 16th and 17th centuries: confiscation and redistribution of land in the [Plantations of Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plantations_of_Ireland "Plantations of Ireland") +- 1845--1849: [The Great Famine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Famine_(Ireland) "Great Famine (Ireland)") occasioned depopulation and mass emigration +- 1846: Westminster's repeal of the [Corn Laws](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corn_Laws "Corn Laws") disrupted Irish agriculture^[[235]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-237)^ + +### Major industries + +#### Tourism + +Main article: [Tourist destinations in Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tourist_destinations_in_Ireland "Tourist destinations in Ireland") + +[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Inisheer_landscape.jpg/220px-Inisheer_landscape.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Inisheer_landscape.jpg) + +[Inisheer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inisheer "Inisheer") (*Inis Oírr*), [Aran Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aran_Islands "Aran Islands") + +There are three [World Heritage Sites](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Heritage_Site "World Heritage Site") on the island: the *[Brú na Bóinne](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Br%C3%BA_na_B%C3%B3inne "Brú na Bóinne")* complex, [Skellig Michael](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skellig_Michael "Skellig Michael") and the [Giant's Causeway](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giant%27s_Causeway "Giant's Causeway").^[[236]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-238)^ Several other places are on the tentative list, for example the Burren, the Ceide Fields^[[237]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-239)^ and [Mount Stewart](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Stewart "Mount Stewart").^[[238]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-240)^ + +Some of the most visited sites in Ireland include [Bunratty Castle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bunratty_Castle "Bunratty Castle"), the [Rock of Cashel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_of_Cashel "Rock of Cashel"), the [Cliffs of Moher](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cliffs_of_Moher "Cliffs of Moher"), [Holy Cross Abbey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Cross_Abbey "Holy Cross Abbey") and [Blarney Castle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blarney_Castle "Blarney Castle").^[[239]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-facts2006-241)^ Historically important monastic sites include [Glendalough](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glendalough "Glendalough") and [Clonmacnoise](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clonmacnoise "Clonmacnoise"), which are maintained as [national monuments](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Monument_(Ireland) "National Monument (Ireland)") in the Republic of Ireland.^[[240]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-242)^ + +The Dublin region receives the most tourists^[[239]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-facts2006-241)^ and is home to several of the most popular attractions such as the [Guinness Storehouse](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guinness_Storehouse "Guinness Storehouse") and Book of Kells.^[[239]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-facts2006-241)^ The west and south west, which includes the [Lakes of Killarney](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lakes_of_Killarney "Lakes of Killarney") and the [Dingle peninsula](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dingle_peninsula "Dingle peninsula") in County Kerry and [Connemara](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connemara "Connemara") and the [Aran Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aran_Islands "Aran Islands") in County Galway, are also popular tourist destinations.^[[239]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-facts2006-241)^ + +[Achill Island](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achill_Island "Achill Island") lies off the coast of [County Mayo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_Mayo "County Mayo") and is Ireland's largest island. It is a popular tourist destination for surfing and contains 5 [Blue Flag beaches](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_Flag_beach "Blue Flag beach") and [Croaghaun](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Croaghaun "Croaghaun") one of the world's highest sea cliffs. [Stately homes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stately_home "Stately home"), built during the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries in [Palladian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palladian "Palladian"), [Neoclassical](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neoclassical_architecture "Neoclassical architecture") and [neo-Gothic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-Gothic "Neo-Gothic") styles, such as [Castle Ward](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castle_Ward "Castle Ward"), [Castletown House](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castletown_House "Castletown House"), [Bantry House](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bantry_House "Bantry House"), [Strokestown Park](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strokestown_Park "Strokestown Park") and [Glenveagh Castle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glenveagh_Castle "Glenveagh Castle") are also of interest to tourists. Some have been converted into hotels, such as [Ashford Castle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashford_Castle "Ashford Castle"),^[[241]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-243)^ [Castle Leslie](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castle_Leslie "Castle Leslie")^[[242]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-244)^ and [Dromoland Castle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dromoland_Castle "Dromoland Castle").^[[243]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-245)^ + +#### Energy + +Main article: [Energy in Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_in_Ireland "Energy in Ireland") + +Although for most of their existence electricity networks in the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland were entirely separate, the island has operated for some time as a single market for electricity.^[[244]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-246)^ Both networks were designed and constructed independently post-partition but they are now connected with three interlinks^[[245]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-247)^ and are also connected through Great Britain to mainland Europe. The situation in Northern Ireland is complicated by the issue of private companies not supplying [Northern Ireland Electricity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Ireland_Electricity "Northern Ireland Electricity") with enough power. In the Republic of Ireland, the [ESB](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ESB_Group "ESB Group") has failed to modernise its power stations, and the availability of power plants has recently averaged only 66%, one of the worst such rates in Western Europe. [EirGrid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EirGrid "EirGrid") has started building a [HVDC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-voltage_direct_current "High-voltage direct current") transmission line between Ireland and Great Britain with a capacity of 500 MW,^[[246]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-248)^ about 10% of Ireland's peak demand. + +As with electricity, the natural gas distribution network is also now all-island, with a pipeline linking [Gormanston, County Meath](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gormanston,_County_Meath "Gormanston, County Meath"), and [Ballyclare](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballyclare "Ballyclare"), County Antrim.^[[247]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-249)^ Most of Ireland's gas comes through interconnectors between [Twynholm](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twynholm "Twynholm") in Scotland and [Ballylumford](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballylumford_power_station "Ballylumford power station"), County Antrim and [Loughshinny](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loughshinny "Loughshinny"), County Dublin. Supplies come from the Corrib Gas Field, off the coast of County Mayo, with a supply previously also coming from the Kinsale gas field off the County Cork coast.^[[248]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-250)^^[[249]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-251)^ The County Mayo field faces some localised opposition over [a controversial decision](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corrib_gas_controversy "Corrib gas controversy") to refine the gas onshore. + +[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Maam_Cross_turf-cutting_geograph-3178833-by-Ben-Brooksbank.jpg/220px-Maam_Cross_turf-cutting_geograph-3178833-by-Ben-Brooksbank.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Maam_Cross_turf-cutting_geograph-3178833-by-Ben-Brooksbank.jpg) + +Turf-cutting near [Maam Cross](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maam_Cross "Maam Cross") by the road to Leenane, County Galway + +Ireland has an ancient industry based on [peat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peat "Peat") (known locally as "turf") as a source of energy for home fires. A form of [biomass](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomass "Biomass") energy, this source of heat is still widely used in rural areas. However, because of the ecological importance of peatlands in storing carbon and their rarity, the EU is attempting to protect this habitat by fining Ireland for digging up peat. In cities, heat is generally supplied by natural gas or [heating oil](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heating_oil "Heating oil"), although some urban suppliers distribute sods of turf as "smokeless fuel" for domestic use. + +The Republic has a strong commitment to renewable energy and ranks as one of the top 10 markets for [clean-technology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clean_technology "Clean technology") investment in the 2014 Global Green Economy Index.^[[250]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-ggei-252)^ Research and development in [renewable energy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renewable_energy "Renewable energy") (such as [wind power](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_power "Wind power")) has increased since 2004. Large [wind farms have been constructed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_wind_farms_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland "List of wind farms in the Republic of Ireland") in Cork, Donegal, Mayo and Antrim. The construction of wind farms has in some cases been delayed by opposition from local communities, some of whom regard the [wind turbines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_turbine "Wind turbine") as unsightly. The Republic is hindered by an ageing network that was not designed to handle the varying availability of power that comes from wind farms. The ESB's [Turlough Hill](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turlough_Hill "Turlough Hill") facility is the only power-storage facility in the state.^[[251]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland#cite_note-253)^ \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/src/data/irish-language.txt b/src/data/irish-language.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..3bea2cd --- /dev/null +++ b/src/data/irish-language.txt @@ -0,0 +1,825 @@ +Irish language +============== + +"Gaoidhealg" redirects here. For the shared literary form that was in use from the 13th to the 16th--18th century, see [Classical Gaelic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_Gaelic "Classical Gaelic"). + +| Irish | +| + +- Irish Gaelic +- Gaelic + + | +| [Standard Irish](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_Irish "Standard Irish"): *Gaeilge (na hÉireann)* | +| Pronunciation | Connacht Irish: [[ˈɡeːlʲɟə]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Irish "Help:IPA/Irish")\ +Munster Irish: [[ˈɡeːl̪ˠən̠ʲ]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Irish "Help:IPA/Irish")\ +Ulster Irish: [[ˈɡeːlʲəc]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Irish "Help:IPA/Irish") | +| Region | [Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland "Ireland") | +| Ethnicity | [Irish people](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_people "Irish people") | +| + +Native speakers + + | [L1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_language "First language"): unknown\ +People aged 3+ stating they could speak Irish "very well":\ +(ROI, 2022) 195,029\ +Daily users outside education system:\ +(ROI, 2022) 71,968\ +(NI, 2021) 43,557\ +[L2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_language "Second language"): unknown\ +People aged 3+ stating they could speak Irish:\ +(ROI, 2022) 1,873,997\ +(NI, 2021) 228,600 | +| + +[Language family](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_family "Language family") + + | [Indo-European](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-European_languages "Indo-European languages") + +- [Celtic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic_languages "Celtic languages") + - [Insular Celtic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insular_Celtic_languages "Insular Celtic languages") + - [Goidelic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goidelic_languages "Goidelic languages") + - **Irish** + + | +| + +Early forms + + | [Primitive Irish](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primitive_Irish "Primitive Irish") + +- [Old Irish](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Irish "Old Irish") + - [Middle Irish](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Irish "Middle Irish") + - [Early Modern Irish](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Modern_Irish "Early Modern Irish") + + | +| + +Standard forms + + | [An Caighdeán Oifigiúil](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Caighde%C3%A1n_Oifigi%C3%BAil "An Caighdeán Oifigiúil") (written only) | +| Dialects | + +- [Connacht Irish](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connacht_Irish "Connacht Irish") +- Leinster Irish † +- [Munster Irish](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Munster_Irish "Munster Irish") +- [Newfoundland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language_in_Newfoundland "Irish language in Newfoundland") † +- [Ulster Irish](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulster_Irish "Ulster Irish") + + | +| + +[Writing system](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Writing_system "Writing system") + + | [Latin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_script "Latin script") ([Irish alphabet](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_alphabet "Irish alphabet"))\ +[Ogham](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ogham "Ogham") (historically)\ +[Irish Braille](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Braille "Irish Braille") | +| Official status | +| + +Official language in + + | [Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland "Republic of Ireland")^[[a]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-2)^\ +[Northern Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Ireland "Northern Ireland")^[[2]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-3)^\ +[European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union "European Union") | +| Language codes | +| [ISO 639-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_639-1 "ISO 639-1") | `[ga](https://www.loc.gov/standards/iso639-2/php/langcodes_name.php?iso_639_1=ga)` | +| [ISO 639-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_639-2 "ISO 639-2") | `[gle](https://www.loc.gov/standards/iso639-2/php/langcodes_name.php?code_ID=164)` | +| [ISO 639-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_639-3 "ISO 639-3") | `[gle](https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/gle "iso639-3:gle")` | +| *[Glottolog](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glottolog "Glottolog")* | `[iris1253](https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/iris1253)` | +| [ELP](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endangered_Languages_Project "Endangered Languages Project") | [Irish](http://www.endangeredlanguages.com/lang/3437) | +| [Linguasphere](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguasphere_Observatory "Linguasphere Observatory") | `50-AAA` | +| [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Irish_speakers_in_2011.png/320px-Irish_speakers_in_2011.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Irish_speakers_in_2011.png) + +Proportion of respondents who said they could speak Irish in the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland censuses of 2011 + + | +| [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Lang_Status_60-DE.svg/320px-Lang_Status_60-DE.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lang_Status_60-DE.svg) + +Irish is classified as Definitely Endangered by the [UNESCO](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCO "UNESCO") [Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlas_of_the_World%27s_Languages_in_Danger "Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger") (2010) + + | +| **This article contains [IPA](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet "International Phonetic Alphabet") phonetic symbols.** Without proper [rendering support](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA#Rendering_issues "Help:IPA"), you may see [question marks, boxes, or other symbols](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specials_(Unicode_block)#Replacement_character "Specials (Unicode block)") instead of [Unicode](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unicode "Unicode") characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see [Help:IPA](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA "Help:IPA"). | + +![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/50px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png) + +[Spoken Irish](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MSF_chapter_1.ogg "File:MSF chapter 1.ogg") + +[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MSF_chapter_1.ogg "Play audio")Duration: 14 minutes and 42 seconds.14:42 + +The first chapter of Mo Sgéal Féin, read by native Irish speaker Mairéad Uí Lionáird in the Muskerry Gaeltacht + +* * * * * + +*Problems playing this file? See [media help](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Media "Help:Media").* + +**Irish** ([Standard Irish](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_Irish "Standard Irish"): *Gaeilge*), also known as **Irish Gaelic** or simply **Gaelic** ([/ˈɡeɪlɪk/](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English "Help:IPA/English") [*GAY-lik*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key "Help:Pronunciation respelling key")),^[[3]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-FnG_212-4)^^[[4]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-OG_18772-5)^^[[5]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-6)^^[[6]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-auto1-7)^^[[7]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-Cambridge_University_Press-8)^^[[8]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-9)^ is a [Goidelic language](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goidelic_languages "Goidelic languages") of the [Insular Celtic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insular_Celtic "Insular Celtic") branch of the [Celtic language group](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic_language_family "Celtic language family"), which is a part of the [Indo-European language family](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-European_languages "Indo-European languages").^[[7]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-Cambridge_University_Press-8)^^[[4]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-OG_18772-5)^^[[9]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-FnG_21-10)^^[[10]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-:0-11)^^[[6]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-auto1-7)^ Irish is [indigenous](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_language "Indigenous language") to the island of [Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland "Ireland")^[[11]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-12)^ and was the population's [first language](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_language "First language") until the 19th century, when [English](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_(language) "English (language)") gradually became [dominant](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_imperialism "Linguistic imperialism"), particularly in the last decades of the century. Today, Irish is still commonly spoken as a first language in Ireland's [Gaeltacht](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaeltacht "Gaeltacht") regions, in which 2% of Ireland's population lived in 2022.^[[12]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-ROI_census_2023-13)^ + +The total number of people (aged 3 and over) in Ireland who claimed they could speak Irish in April 2022 was 1,873,997, representing 40% of respondents, but of these, 472,887 said they never spoke it and a further 551,993 said they only spoke it within the education system.^[[12]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-ROI_census_2023-13)^ Linguistic analyses of Irish speakers are therefore based primarily on the number of daily users in [Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland "Republic of Ireland") outside the education system, which in 2022 was 20,261 in the [Gaeltacht](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaeltacht "Gaeltacht") and 51,707 outside it, totalling 71,968.^[[12]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-ROI_census_2023-13)^ In response to the 2021 census of [Northern Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Ireland "Northern Ireland"), 43,557 individuals stated they spoke Irish on a daily basis, 26,286 spoke it on a weekly basis, 47,153 spoke it less often than weekly, and 9,758 said they could speak Irish, but never spoke it.^[[13]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-14)^ From 2006 to 2008, over 22,000 [Irish Americans](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Americans "Irish Americans") reported speaking Irish as their first language at home, with several times that number claiming "some knowledge" of the language.^[[14]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-USA-15)^ + +For most of recorded [Irish history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Ireland "History of Ireland"), Irish was the dominant language of the [Irish people](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_people "Irish people"), who [took it with them to other regions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_diaspora "Irish diaspora"), such as [Scotland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotland "Scotland") and the [Isle of Man](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isle_of_Man "Isle of Man"), where [Middle Irish](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Irish "Middle Irish") gave rise to [Scottish Gaelic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic "Scottish Gaelic") and [Manx](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manx_language "Manx language"). It was also, for a period, spoken widely across [Canada](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada "Canada"), with an estimated 200,000--250,000 daily Canadian speakers of Irish in 1890.^[[15]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-16)^ On the island of [Newfoundland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newfoundland_and_Labrador "Newfoundland and Labrador"), a [unique dialect](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newfoundland_Irish "Newfoundland Irish") of Irish developed before falling out of use in the early 20th century. + +With a [writing system](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Writing_system "Writing system"), [Ogham](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ogham "Ogham"), dating back to at least the 4th century AD, which was gradually replaced by [Latin script](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_script "Latin script") since the 5th century AD, Irish has [one of the oldest vernacular literatures](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Irish_literature "Early Irish literature") in [Western Europe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Europe "Western Europe"). On the island, the language has three major dialects: [Connacht](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connacht_Irish "Connacht Irish"), [Munster](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Munster_Irish "Munster Irish") and [Ulster Irish](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulster_Irish "Ulster Irish"). All three have distinctions in their [speech](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech "Speech") and [orthography](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthography "Orthography"). There is also *[An Caighdeán Oifigiúil](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Caighde%C3%A1n_Oifigi%C3%BAil "An Caighdeán Oifigiúil")*, a [standardised](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_language "Standard language") written form devised by a parliamentary commission in the 1950s. The traditional [Irish alphabet](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_alphabet "Irish alphabet"), a variant of the [Latin alphabet](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_alphabet "Latin alphabet") with 18 [letters](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letter_(alphabet) "Letter (alphabet)"), has been succeeded by the [standard Latin alphabet](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_basic_Latin_alphabet "ISO basic Latin alphabet") (albeit with 7--8 letters used primarily in [loanwords](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loanwords "Loanwords")). + +Irish has [constitutional](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_Ireland "Constitution of Ireland") status as the [national and first official language](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_of_Ireland "Languages of Ireland") of the [Republic of Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland "Republic of Ireland"), and is also an official language of [Northern Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_of_Northern_Ireland "Languages of Northern Ireland") and among the official [languages of the European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_of_the_European_Union "Languages of the European Union"). The public body [Foras na Gaeilge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foras_na_Gaeilge "Foras na Gaeilge") is responsible for the promotion of the language throughout the island. Irish has no regulatory body but *An Caighdeán Oifigiúil*, the standard written form, is guided by a parliamentary service and new vocabulary by a voluntary committee with university input. + +Names[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Irish_language&action=edit§ion=1 "Edit section: Names")] +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +### In Irish[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Irish_language&action=edit§ion=2 "Edit section: In Irish")] + +In *[An Caighdeán Oifigiúil](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Caighde%C3%A1n_Oifigi%C3%BAil "An Caighdeán Oifigiúil")* ("The Official [Written] [Standard](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_language "Standard language")") the name of the language is ***Gaeilge***, from the South [Connacht](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connacht "Connacht") form, spelled *Gaedhilge* prior the spelling reform of 1948, which was originally the [genitive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genitive_case "Genitive case") of *Gaedhealg*, the form used in [Classical Gaelic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_Gaelic "Classical Gaelic").^[[16]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-17)^ The modern spelling results from the deletion of the silent ⟨dh⟩ in *Gaedhilge*. Older spellings include *Gaoidhealg* [[ˈɡeːʝəlˠəɡ]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA "Help:IPA") in Classical Gaelic and *Goídelc* [[ˈɡoiðʲelɡ]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA "Help:IPA") in [Old Irish](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Irish "Old Irish"). [Goidelic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goidelic "Goidelic"), used to refer to the language family, is derived from the Old Irish term. + +[Endonyms](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endonym_and_exonym "Endonym and exonym") of the language in the various modern Irish dialects include: ***Gaeilge*** [[ˈɡeːlʲɟə]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Irish "Help:IPA/Irish") in Galway, ***Gaeilg***/***Gaeilic***/***Gaeilig*** [[ˈɡeːlʲəc]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Irish "Help:IPA/Irish") in Mayo and [Ulster](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulster_Irish "Ulster Irish"), ***Gaelainn***/***Gaoluinn*** [[ˈɡeːl̪ˠən̠ʲ]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Irish "Help:IPA/Irish") in West/Cork, Kerry [Munster](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Munster_Irish "Munster Irish"), as well as ***Gaedhealaing*** in mid and East Kerry/Cork and Waterford [Munster](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Munster_Irish "Munster Irish") to reflect local pronunciation.^[[17]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-18)^^[[18]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-19)^ + +*Gaeilge* also has a wider meaning, including the [Gaelic of Scotland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic "Scottish Gaelic") and the [Isle of Man](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manx_language "Manx language"), as well as of Ireland. When required by the context, these are distinguished as *Gaeilge na hAlban*, *Gaeilge Mhanann* and *Gaeilge na hÉireann* respectively.^[[19]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-20)^ + +### In English[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Irish_language&action=edit§ion=3 "Edit section: In English")] + +In English (including [Hiberno-English](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiberno-English "Hiberno-English")), the language is usually referred to as *Irish*, as well as *Gaelic* and *Irish Gaelic*.^[[20]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-21)^^[[21]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-22)^ The term *Irish Gaelic* may be seen when English speakers discuss the relationship between the three Goidelic languages (Irish, Scottish Gaelic and Manx).^[[22]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-23)^ *Gaelic* is a collective term for the Goidelic languages,^[[6]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-auto1-7)^^[[23]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-:1-24)^^[[7]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-Cambridge_University_Press-8)^^[[10]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-:0-11)^^[[24]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-25)^ and when the context is clear it may be used without qualification to refer to each language individually. When the context is specific but unclear, the term may be qualified, as Irish Gaelic, Scottish Gaelic or Manx Gaelic. Historically the name "Erse" ([/ɜːrs/](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English "Help:IPA/English") [*URS*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key "Help:Pronunciation respelling key")) was also sometimes used in Scots and then in English to refer to Irish;^[[25]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-Erse_cite-26)^ as well as Scottish Gaelic. + +History[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Irish_language&action=edit§ion=4 "Edit section: History")] +------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +Main article: [History of the Irish language](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Irish_language "History of the Irish language") + +Written Irish is first attested in *[Ogham](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ogham "Ogham")* inscriptions from the 4th century AD,^[[26]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-27)^ a stage of the language known as [Primitive Irish](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primitive_Irish "Primitive Irish"). These writings have been found throughout Ireland and the west coast of Great Britain. Primitive Irish underwent a change into [Old Irish](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Irish "Old Irish") through the 5th century. Old Irish, dating from the 6th century, used the [Latin alphabet](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_alphabet "Latin alphabet") and is attested primarily in [marginalia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marginalia "Marginalia") to Latin manuscripts. During this time, the Irish language absorbed some [Latin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin "Latin") words, some via [Old Welsh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Welsh "Old Welsh"), including [ecclesiastical terms](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecclesiastical "Ecclesiastical"): examples are *easpag* (bishop) from *episcopus*, and *Domhnach* (Sunday, from *dominica*). + +By the 10th century, Old Irish had evolved into [Middle Irish](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Irish "Middle Irish"), which was spoken throughout Ireland, [Isle of Man](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isle_of_Man "Isle of Man") and parts of [Scotland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotland "Scotland"). It is the language of a large corpus of literature, including the [Ulster Cycle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulster_Cycle "Ulster Cycle"). From the 12th century, Middle Irish began to evolve into modern Irish in Ireland, into [Scottish Gaelic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic "Scottish Gaelic") in Scotland, and into the [Manx language](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manx_language "Manx language") in the [Isle of Man](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isle_of_Man "Isle of Man"). + +[Early Modern Irish](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Modern_Irish "Early Modern Irish"), dating from the 13th century, was the basis of the literary language of both Ireland and Gaelic-speaking Scotland. Modern Irish, as attested in the work of such writers as [Geoffrey Keating](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoffrey_Keating "Geoffrey Keating"), may be said to date from the 17th century, and was the medium of popular literature from that time on. + +From the 18th century on, the language lost ground in the east of the country. The reasons behind this [shift](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_shift "Language shift") were complex but came down to a number of factors: + +- Discouragement of its use by the Anglo-Irish administration. +- The [Catholic Church](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic_Church "Catholic Church")'s support of English over Irish. +- The spread of bilingualism from the 1750s onwards.^[[27]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-28)^ + +[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Irishin1871.jpg/220px-Irishin1871.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Irishin1871.jpg) + +The distribution of the Irish language in 1871 + +The change was characterised by [diglossia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diglossia "Diglossia") (two languages being used by the same community in different social and economic situations) and transitional bilingualism (monoglot Irish-speaking grandparents with bilingual children and monoglot English-speaking grandchildren). By the mid-18th century, English was becoming a language of the Catholic middle class, the Catholic Church and public intellectuals, especially in the east of the country. Increasingly, as the value of English became apparent, parents sanctioned the prohibition of Irish in schools.^[[28]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-%C3%93_Gr%C3%A1da-29)^ Increasing interest in emigrating to the [United States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States "United States") and [Canada](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada "Canada") was also a driver, as fluency in English allowed the new immigrants to get jobs in areas other than farming. An estimated one quarter to one third of US immigrants during the [Great Famine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Famine_(Ireland) "Great Famine (Ireland)") were Irish speakers.^[[29]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-30)^ + +Irish was not marginal to Ireland's modernisation in the 19th century, as is often assumed. In the first half of the century there were still around three million people for whom Irish was the primary language, and their numbers alone made them a cultural and social force. Irish speakers often insisted on using the language in law courts (even when they knew English), and Irish was also common in commercial transactions. The language was heavily implicated in the "devotional revolution" which marked the standardisation of Catholic religious practice and was also widely used in a political context. Down to the time of the Great Famine and even afterwards, the language was in use by all classes, Irish being an urban as well as a rural language.^[[30]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-31)^ + +This linguistic dynamism was reflected in the efforts of certain public intellectuals to counter the decline of the language. At the end of the 19th century, they launched the [Gaelic revival](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaelic_revival "Gaelic revival") in an attempt to encourage the learning and use of Irish, although few adult learners mastered the language.^[[31]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-32)^ The vehicle of the revival was the Gaelic League (*[Conradh na Gaeilge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conradh_na_Gaeilge "Conradh na Gaeilge")*), and particular emphasis was placed on the folk tradition, which in Irish is particularly rich. Efforts were also made to develop journalism and a modern literature. + +Although it has been noted that the Catholic Church played a role in the decline of the Irish language before the Gaelic Revival, the Protestant [Church of Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_Ireland "Church of Ireland") also made only minor efforts to encourage use of Irish in a religious context. An Irish translation of the Old Testament by Leinsterman [Muircheartach Ó Cíonga](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muircheartach_%C3%93g_%C3%93_C%C3%ADonga "Muircheartach Óg Ó Cíonga"), commissioned by [Bishop Bedell](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Bedell "William Bedell"), was published after 1685 along with a translation of the New Testament. Otherwise, Anglicisation was seen as synonymous with 'civilising' the native Irish. Currently, modern day Irish speakers in the church are pushing for language revival.^[[32]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-33)^ + +It has been estimated that there were around 800,000 [monoglot](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monoglot "Monoglot") Irish speakers in 1800, which dropped to 320,000 by the end of the famine, and under 17,000 by 1911.^[[33]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-34)^ + +Status and policy[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Irish_language&action=edit§ion=5 "Edit section: Status and policy")] +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +Main article: [Status of the Irish language](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Status_of_the_Irish_language "Status of the Irish language") + +### Ireland[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Irish_language&action=edit§ion=6 "Edit section: Ireland")] + +Irish is recognised by the [Constitution of Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_Ireland "Constitution of Ireland") as the national and first official language of [Republic of Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland "Republic of Ireland") (English being the other official language). Despite this, almost all government business and legislative debate is conducted in English.^[[34]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-35)^ + +In 1938, the founder of [Conradh na Gaeilge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conradh_na_Gaeilge "Conradh na Gaeilge") (Gaelic League), [Douglas Hyde](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_Hyde "Douglas Hyde"), was inaugurated as the first [President of Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_Ireland "President of Ireland"). The record of his delivering his inaugural *Declaration of Office* in [Roscommon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_Roscommon "County Roscommon") Irish is one of only a few recordings of that dialect.^[[35]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-36)^^[[36]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-auto-37)^^[[37]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-38)^^[[38]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-39)^ + +[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Bilingual_sign_Grafton_Street_Dublin_Ireland.jpg/220px-Bilingual_sign_Grafton_Street_Dublin_Ireland.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bilingual_sign_Grafton_Street_Dublin_Ireland.jpg) + +Bilingual sign in [Grafton Street](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grafton_Street "Grafton Street"), [Dublin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dublin "Dublin") + +In the 2016 census, 10.5% of respondents stated that they spoke Irish, either daily or weekly, while over 70,000 people (4.2%) speak it as a habitual daily means of communication.^[[39]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-40)^ + +From the foundation of the [Irish Free State](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Free_State "Irish Free State") in 1922 (see [History of the Republic of Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Republic_of_Ireland "History of the Republic of Ireland")), new appointees to the [Civil Service of the Republic of Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_Service_of_the_Republic_of_Ireland "Civil Service of the Republic of Ireland"), including [postal workers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postal_worker "Postal worker"), [tax collectors](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tax_collector "Tax collector"), agricultural inspectors, [Garda Síochána](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garda_S%C3%ADoch%C3%A1na "Garda Síochána") (police), etc., were required to have some proficiency in Irish. By law, a Garda who was addressed in Irish had to respond in Irish as well.^[[40]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-41)^ + +In 1974, in part through the actions of protest organisations like the [Language Freedom Movement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_Freedom_Movement "Language Freedom Movement"), the requirement for entrance to the public service was changed to proficiency in just one official language. + +Nevertheless, Irish remains a required subject of study in all schools in the Republic of Ireland that receive public money (see [Education in the Republic of Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland "Education in the Republic of Ireland")). Teachers in primary schools must also pass a compulsory examination called *Scrúdú Cáilíochta sa Ghaeilge*. As of 2005, Garda Síochána recruits need a pass in [Leaving Certificate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leaving_Certificate_(Ireland) "Leaving Certificate (Ireland)") Irish or English, and receive lessons in Irish during their two years of training. Official documents of the Irish government must be published in both Irish and English or Irish alone (in accordance with the Official Languages Act 2003, enforced by *An Coimisinéir Teanga*, the Irish language ombudsman). + +The [National University of Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_University_of_Ireland "National University of Ireland") requires all students wishing to embark on a degree course in the NUI federal system to pass the subject of Irish in the Leaving Certificate or [GCE](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Certificate_of_Education "General Certificate of Education")/[GCSE](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GCSE "GCSE") examinations.^[[41]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-42)^ Exemptions are made from this requirement for students who were born or completed primary education outside of Ireland, and students diagnosed with [dyslexia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyslexia "Dyslexia"). + +[NUI Galway](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NUI_Galway "NUI Galway") is required to appoint people who are competent in the Irish language, as long as they are also competent in all other aspects of the vacancy to which they are appointed. This requirement is laid down by the University College Galway Act, 1929 (Section 3).^[[42]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-43)^ In 2016, the university faced controversy when it announced the appointment of a president who did not speak Irish. *[Misneach](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Misneach&action=edit&redlink=1 "Misneach (page does not exist)")*^[*[further explanation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify "Wikipedia:Please clarify")*]^ staged protests against this decision. The following year the university announced that [Ciarán Ó hÓgartaigh](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ciar%C3%A1n_%C3%93_h%C3%93gartaigh&action=edit&redlink=1 "Ciarán Ó hÓgartaigh (page does not exist)"), a fluent Irish speaker, would be its 13th president.^[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")*]^ + +[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/IMG_Creggs2764.jpg/220px-IMG_Creggs2764.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:IMG_Creggs2764.jpg) + +Bilingual road signs in [Creggs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creggs "Creggs"), [County Galway](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_Galway "County Galway") + +For a number of years there has been vigorous debate in political, academic and other circles about the failure of most students in English-medium schools to achieve competence in Irish, even after fourteen years of teaching as one of the three main subjects.^[[43]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-44)^^[[44]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-45)^^[[45]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-46)^ The concomitant decline in the number of traditional native speakers has also been a cause of great concern.^[[46]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-47)^^[[47]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-48)^^[[48]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-49)^^[[49]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-50)^ + +In 2007, filmmaker [Manchán Magan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manch%C3%A1n_Magan "Manchán Magan") found few Irish speakers in [Dublin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dublin "Dublin"), and faced incredulity when trying to get by speaking only Irish in Dublin. He was unable to accomplish some everyday tasks, as portrayed in his documentary *[No Béarla](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No_B%C3%A9arla "No Béarla")*.^[[50]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-51)^ + +There is, however, a growing body of Irish speakers in urban areas, particularly in Dublin. Many have been educated in schools in which Irish is the language of instruction. Such schools are known as *[Gaelscoileanna](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaelscoil "Gaelscoil")* at primary level. These Irish-medium schools report some better outcomes for students than English-medium schools.^[[51]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-52)^ In 2009, a paper suggested that within a generation, non-Gaeltacht habitual users of Irish might typically be members of an urban, middle class, and highly educated minority.^[[52]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-53)^ + +Parliamentary legislation is supposed to be available in both Irish and English but is frequently only available in English. This is notwithstanding that Article 25.4 of the Constitution of Ireland requires that an "official translation" of any law in one official language be provided immediately in the other official language, if not already passed in both official languages.^[[1]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-constitution-1)^ + +In November 2016, [RTÉ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RT%C3%89 "RTÉ") reported that over 2.3 million people worldwide were learning Irish through the [Duolingo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duolingo "Duolingo") app.^[[53]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-54)^ Irish president [Michael Higgins](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_D._Higgins "Michael D. Higgins") officially honoured several volunteer translators for developing the Irish edition, and said the push for Irish language rights remains an "unfinished project".^[[54]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-55)^ + +#### Gaeltacht[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Irish_language&action=edit§ion=7 "Edit section: Gaeltacht")] + +Main article: [Gaeltacht](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaeltacht "Gaeltacht") + +[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Percentage_stating_they_speak_Irish_daily_outside_the_education_system_in_the_2011_census.png/250px-Percentage_stating_they_speak_Irish_daily_outside_the_education_system_in_the_2011_census.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Percentage_stating_they_speak_Irish_daily_outside_the_education_system_in_the_2011_census.png) + +The percentage of respondents who said they spoke Irish daily outside the education system in the 2011 census in the State.^[*[needs update](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items "Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers")*]^ + +There are rural areas of Ireland where Irish is still spoken daily to some extent as a [first language](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_language "First language"). These regions are known individually and collectively as the *Gaeltacht* (plural *Gaeltachtaí*). While the fluent Irish speakers of these areas, whose numbers have been estimated at 20--30,000,^[[55]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-Siggins_5-56)^ are a minority of the total number of fluent Irish speakers, they represent a higher concentration of Irish speakers than other parts of the country and it is only in *Gaeltacht* areas that Irish continues to be spoken as a community vernacular to some extent. + +According to data compiled by the [Department of Tourism, Culture, Arts, *Gaeltacht*, Sport and Media](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Department_of_Tourism,_Culture,_Arts,_Gaeltacht,_Sport_and_Media "Department of Tourism, Culture, Arts, Gaeltacht, Sport and Media"), only 1/4 of households in *Gaeltacht* areas are fluent in Irish. The author of a detailed analysis of the survey, Donncha Ó hÉallaithe of the [Galway-Mayo Institute of Technology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galway-Mayo_Institute_of_Technology "Galway-Mayo Institute of Technology"), described the Irish language policy followed by Irish governments as a "complete and absolute disaster". *[The Irish Times](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Irish_Times "The Irish Times")*, referring to his analysis published in the Irish language newspaper *[Foinse](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foinse "Foinse")*, quoted him as follows: "It is an absolute indictment of successive Irish Governments that at the foundation of the Irish State there were 250,000 fluent Irish speakers living in Irish-speaking or semi Irish-speaking areas, but the number now is between 20,000 and 30,000."^[[55]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-Siggins_5-56)^ + +In the 1920s, when the Irish Free State was founded, Irish was still a vernacular in some western coastal areas.^[[56]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-57)^ In the 1930s, areas where more than 25% of the population spoke Irish were classified as *Gaeltacht*. Today, the strongest *Gaeltacht* areas, numerically and socially, are those of South [Connemara](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connemara "Connemara"), the west of the [Dingle Peninsula](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dingle_Peninsula "Dingle Peninsula"), and northwest Donegal, where many residents still use Irish as their primary language. These areas are often referred to as the *Fíor-Ghaeltacht* (true *Gaeltacht*), a term originally officially applied to areas where over 50% of the population spoke Irish. + +There are *Gaeltacht* regions in the following counties:^[[57]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-58)^^[[58]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-59)^ + +- [County Galway](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_Galway "County Galway") (*Contae na Gaillimhe*) + - [Connemara](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connemara "Connemara") (*Conamara*) + - [Aran Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aran_Islands "Aran Islands") (*Oileáin Árann*) + - [Carraroe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carraroe "Carraroe") (*An Cheathrú Rua*) + - [Spiddal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiddal "Spiddal") (*An Spidéal*) +- [County Mayo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaeltacht#Mayo_Gaeltacht "Gaeltacht") (*Contae Mhaigh Eo*) +- [County Donegal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_Donegal "County Donegal") (*Contae Dhún na nGall*) +- [County Kerry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_Kerry "County Kerry") (*Contae Chiarraí*) + - [Dingle Peninsula](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dingle_Peninsula "Dingle Peninsula") (*Corca Dhuibhne*) + - [Iveragh Peninsula](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iveragh_Peninsula "Iveragh Peninsula") (*Uibh Rathach*) +- [County Cork](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaeltacht#Cork_Gaeltacht "Gaeltacht") (*Contae Chorcaí*) +- [County Waterford](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaeltacht#Waterford_Gaeltacht "Gaeltacht") (*Contae Phort Láirge*) +- [County Meath](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaeltacht#Meath_Gaeltacht "Gaeltacht") (*Contae na Mí*) + +[Gweedore](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gweedore "Gweedore") (*Gaoth Dobhair*), County Donegal, is the largest *Gaeltacht* parish in Ireland. Irish language summer colleges in the *Gaeltacht* are attended by tens of thousands of teenagers annually. Students live with Gaeltacht families, attend classes, participate in sports, go to **[céilithe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A8ilidh "Cèilidh")** and are obliged to speak Irish. All aspects of Irish culture and tradition are encouraged. + +### Policy[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Irish_language&action=edit§ion=8 "Edit section: Policy")] + +#### Official Languages Act 2003[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Irish_language&action=edit§ion=9 "Edit section: Official Languages Act 2003")] + +Main article: [Official Languages Act 2003](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Official_Languages_Act_2003 "Official Languages Act 2003") + +[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Dublin_airport_sign_in_both_English_and_Irish_Gaelic_languages.jpg/220px-Dublin_airport_sign_in_both_English_and_Irish_Gaelic_languages.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dublin_airport_sign_in_both_English_and_Irish_Gaelic_languages.jpg) + +Dublin airport sign in both English and Irish languages + +The Act was passed 14 July 2003 with the main purpose of improving the amount and quality of public services delivered in Irish by the government and other public bodies.^[[59]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-:12-60)^ Compliance with the Act is monitored by the *[An Coimisinéir Teanga](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Coimisin%C3%A9ir_Teanga "An Coimisinéir Teanga")* (Irish Language Commissioner) which was established in 2004^[[60]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-61)^ and any complaints or concerns pertaining to the Act are brought to them.^[[59]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-:12-60)^ There are 35 sections included in the Act all detailing different aspects of the use of Irish in official documentation and communication. Included in these sections are subjects such as Irish language use in official courts, official publications, and placenames.^[[61]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-62)^ The Act was recently amended in December 2019 in order to strengthen the already preexisting legislation.^[[62]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-63)^ All changes made took into account data collected from online surveys and written submissions.^[[63]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-64)^ + +#### Official Languages Scheme 2019--2022[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Irish_language&action=edit§ion=10 "Edit section: Official Languages Scheme 2019--2022")] + +The Official Languages Scheme was enacted 1 July 2019 and is an 18-page document that adheres to the guidelines of the *Official Languages Act 2003*.^[[64]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-65)^ The purpose of the Scheme is to provide services through the mediums of Irish and/or English. According to the *Department of the Taoiseach,* it is meant to "develop a sustainable economy and a successful society, to pursue Ireland's interests abroad, to implement the Government's Programme and to build a better future for Ireland and all her citizens."^[[65]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-66)^ + +#### 20-Year Strategy for the Irish Language 2010--2030[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Irish_language&action=edit§ion=11 "Edit section: 20-Year Strategy for the Irish Language 2010--2030")] + +Main article: [20-Year Strategy for the Irish Language 2010--2030](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/20-Year_Strategy_for_the_Irish_Language_2010%E2%80%932030 "20-Year Strategy for the Irish Language 2010--2030") + +The Strategy was produced on 21 December 2010 and will stay in action until 2030; it aims to target language vitality and revitalization of the Irish language.^[[66]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-67)^ The 30-page document published by the [Government of Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_of_Ireland "Government of Ireland") details the objectives it plans to work towards in an attempt to preserve and promote both the Irish language and the Gaeltacht. It is divided into four separate phases with the intention of improving 9 main areas of action including: + +- "Education" +- "The *Gaeltacht*" +- "Family Transmission of the Language -- Early Intervention" +- "Administration, Services and Community" +- "Media and Technology" +- "Dictionaries" +- "Legislation and Status" +- "Economic Life" +- "Cross-cutting Initiatives"^[[67]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-:02-68)^ + +The general goal for this strategy was to increase the amount of daily speakers from 83,000 to 250,000 by the end of its run.^[[68]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-69)^ By 2022, the number of such speakers had fallen to 71,968.^[[69]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-70)^ + +### Northern Ireland[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Irish_language&action=edit§ion=12 "Edit section: Northern Ireland")] + +Main article: [Irish language in Northern Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language_in_Northern_Ireland "Irish language in Northern Ireland") + +[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Multilingual_sign_Department_Culture_Leisure_Arts_Northern_Ireland.jpg/220px-Multilingual_sign_Department_Culture_Leisure_Arts_Northern_Ireland.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Multilingual_sign_Department_Culture_Leisure_Arts_Northern_Ireland.jpg) + +A sign for the Department of Culture, Arts and Leisure in Northern Ireland, in English, Irish and [Ulster Scots](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulster_Scots_language "Ulster Scots language"). + +Before the partition of Ireland in 1921, Irish was recognised as a school subject and as "Celtic" in some third level institutions. Between 1921 and 1972, [Northern Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Ireland "Northern Ireland") had devolved government. During those years the political party holding power in the [Stormont Parliament](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliament_of_Northern_Ireland "Parliament of Northern Ireland"), the [Ulster Unionist Party](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulster_Unionist_Party "Ulster Unionist Party") (UUP), was hostile to the language. The context of this hostility was the use of the language by nationalists.^[[70]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-71)^ In broadcasting, there was an exclusion on the reporting of minority cultural issues, and Irish was excluded from radio and television for almost the first fifty years of the previous devolved government.^[[71]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-72)^ After the 1998 [Good Friday Agreement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good_Friday_Agreement "Good Friday Agreement"), the language gradually received a degree of [formal recognition in Northern Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language_in_Northern_Ireland "Irish language in Northern Ireland") from the United Kingdom,^[[72]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-belfast-73)^ and then, in 2003, by the British government's ratification in respect of the language of the [European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Charter_for_Regional_or_Minority_Languages "European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages"). In the 2006 [St Andrews Agreement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Andrews_Agreement "St Andrews Agreement") the British government promised to enact legislation to promote the language^[[73]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-bbc13dec2006-74)^ and in 2022 it approved [legislation to recognise Irish as an official language](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Language_Act "Irish Language Act") alongside English. The bill received [royal assent](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_assent "Royal assent") on 6 December 2022.^[[74]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-75)^ + +The Irish language has often been used as a bargaining chip during government formation in Northern Ireland, prompting protests from organisations and groups such as *[An Dream Dearg](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Dream_Dearg "An Dream Dearg")*.^[[75]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-76)^ + +### European Parliament[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Irish_language&action=edit§ion=13 "Edit section: European Parliament")] + +Irish became an official language of the EU on 1 January 2007, meaning that MEPs with Irish fluency can now speak the language in the [European Parliament](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Parliament "European Parliament") and at committees, although in the case of the latter they have to give prior notice to a simultaneous interpreter in order to ensure that what they say can be interpreted into other languages. + +While an official [language of the European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_of_the_European_Union "Languages of the European Union"), only co-decision regulations were available until 2022, due to a five-year derogation, requested by the Irish Government when negotiating the language's new official status. The Irish government had committed itself to train the necessary number of translators and interpreters and to bear the related costs.^[[76]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-77)^ This derogation ultimately came to an end on 1 January 2022, making Irish a fully recognised EU language for the first time in the state's history.^[[77]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-78)^ + +Before Irish became an official language it was afforded the status of treaty language and only the highest-level documents of the EU were made available in Irish. + +### Outside Ireland[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Irish_language&action=edit§ion=14 "Edit section: Outside Ireland")] + +Main articles: [Irish language outside Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language_outside_Ireland "Irish language outside Ireland") and [Irish language in Newfoundland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language_in_Newfoundland "Irish language in Newfoundland") + +The Irish language was carried abroad in the modern period by a vast [diaspora](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diaspora "Diaspora"), chiefly to [Great Britain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Britain "Great Britain") and North America, but also to [Australia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australia "Australia"), [New Zealand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Zealand "New Zealand") and [Argentina](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argentina "Argentina"). The first large movements began in the 17th century, largely as a result of the [Cromwellian conquest of Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cromwellian_conquest_of_Ireland "Cromwellian conquest of Ireland"), which saw many Irish sent to the [West Indies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Indies "West Indies"). Irish emigration to the United States was well established by the 18th century, and was reinforced in the 1840s by thousands fleeing from [the Famine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Famine_(Ireland) "Great Famine (Ireland)"). This flight also affected Britain. Up until that time most emigrants spoke Irish as their first language, though English was establishing itself as the primary language. Irish speakers had first arrived in Australia in the late 18th century as convicts and soldiers, and many Irish-speaking settlers followed, particularly in the 1860s. New Zealand also received some of this influx. Argentina was the only non-English-speaking country to receive large numbers of Irish emigrants, and there were few Irish speakers among them. + +Relatively few of the emigrants were literate in Irish, but manuscripts in the language were brought to both Australia and the United States, and it was in the United States that the first newspaper to make significant use of Irish was established: *[An Gaodhal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Gael "An Gael")*. In Australia, too, the language found its way into print. The [Gaelic revival](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaelic_revival "Gaelic revival"), which started in Ireland in the 1890s, found a response abroad, with branches of *[Conradh na Gaeilge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conradh_na_Gaeilge "Conradh na Gaeilge")* being established in all the countries to which Irish speakers had emigrated. + +The decline of Irish in Ireland and a slowing of emigration helped to ensure a decline in the language abroad, along with natural attrition in the host countries. Despite this, small groups of enthusiasts continued to learn and cultivate Irish in diaspora countries and elsewhere, a trend which strengthened in the second half of the 20th century. Today the language is taught at tertiary level in North America, Australia and Europe, and Irish speakers outside Ireland contribute to journalism and literature in the language. There are significant Irish-speaking networks in the United States and Canada;^[[78]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-79)^ figures released for the period 2006--2008 show that 22,279 [Irish Americans](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Americans "Irish Americans") claimed to speak Irish at home.^[[14]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-USA-15)^ + +The Irish language is also one of the languages of the [Celtic League](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic_League "Celtic League"), a non-governmental organisation that promotes [self-determination](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-determination "Self-determination"), Celtic identity and culture in [Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland "Ireland"), [Scotland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotland "Scotland"), [Wales](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wales "Wales"), [Brittany](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brittany "Brittany"), [Cornwall](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornwall "Cornwall") and the [Isle of Man](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isle_of_Man "Isle of Man"), known collectively as the [Celtic nations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic_nations "Celtic nations"). + +Irish was spoken as a community language until the early 20th century on the [island of Newfoundland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Island_of_Newfoundland "Island of Newfoundland"), in a form known as [Newfoundland Irish](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language_in_Newfoundland "Irish language in Newfoundland").^[[79]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-80)^ Certain Irish vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation features are still used in modern [Newfoundland English](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newfoundland_English "Newfoundland English").^[[80]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-81)^ + +Usage[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Irish_language&action=edit§ion=15 "Edit section: Usage")] +--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +The 2016 census data shows: + +> The total number of people who answered 'yes' to being able to speak Irish in April 2016 was 1,761,420, a slight decrease (0.7 per cent) on the 2011 figure of 1,774,437. This represents 39.8 per cent of respondents compared with 41.4 in 2011... Of the 73,803 daily Irish speakers (outside the education system), 20,586 (27.9%) lived in Gaeltacht areas.^[[81]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-Cens_16_Irish-82)^ + +### Daily Irish speakers in Gaeltacht areas between 2011 and 2016[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Irish_language&action=edit§ion=16 "Edit section: Daily Irish speakers in Gaeltacht areas between 2011 and 2016")] + +| Gaeltacht Area | 2011 | 2016 | Change 2011--2016 | +| No. | % | +| County Cork | 982 | 872 | ![Decrease](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Decrease2.svg/11px-Decrease2.svg.png) 110 | ![Decrease](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Decrease2.svg/11px-Decrease2.svg.png) 11.2% | +| County Donegal | 7,047 | 5,929 | ![Decrease](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Decrease2.svg/11px-Decrease2.svg.png) 1,118 | ![Decrease](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Decrease2.svg/11px-Decrease2.svg.png) 15.9% | +| Galway City | 636 | 647 | ![Increase](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/11px-Increase2.svg.png) 11 | ![Increase](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/11px-Increase2.svg.png) 1.6% | +| County Galway | 10,085 | 9,445 | ![Decrease](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Decrease2.svg/11px-Decrease2.svg.png) 640 | ![Decrease](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Decrease2.svg/11px-Decrease2.svg.png) 6.3% | +| County Kerry | 2,501 | 2,049 | ![Decrease](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Decrease2.svg/11px-Decrease2.svg.png) 452 | ![Decrease](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Decrease2.svg/11px-Decrease2.svg.png) 18.1% | +| County Mayo | 1,172 | 895 | ![Decrease](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Decrease2.svg/11px-Decrease2.svg.png) 277 | ![Decrease](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Decrease2.svg/11px-Decrease2.svg.png) 23.6% | +| County Meath | 314 | 283 | ![Decrease](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Decrease2.svg/11px-Decrease2.svg.png) 31 | ![Decrease](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Decrease2.svg/11px-Decrease2.svg.png) 9.9% | +| County Waterford | 438 | 467 | ![Increase](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/11px-Increase2.svg.png) 29 | ![Increase](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/11px-Increase2.svg.png) 6.6% | +| **All Gaeltacht Areas** | **23,175** | **20,586** | ![Decrease](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Decrease2.svg/11px-Decrease2.svg.png) **2,589** | ![Decrease](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Decrease2.svg/11px-Decrease2.svg.png) **11.2%** | +| + +*Source:^[[82]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-83)^* + + | + +In 1996, the three electoral divisions in the State where Irish had the most daily speakers were An Turloch (91%+), Scainimh (89%+), Min an Chladaigh (88%+).^[[83]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-84)^ + +Dialects[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Irish_language&action=edit§ion=17 "Edit section: Dialects")] +--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +Irish is represented by several traditional [dialects](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialect "Dialect") and by various varieties of "urban" Irish. The latter have acquired lives of their own and a growing number of native speakers. Differences between the dialects make themselves felt in stress, intonation, vocabulary and structural features. + +Roughly speaking, the three major dialect areas which survive coincide roughly with the provinces of [Connacht](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connacht "Connacht") (*Cúige Chonnacht*), [Munster](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Munster "Munster") (*Cúige Mumhan*) and [Ulster](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulster "Ulster") (*Cúige Uladh*). Records of some dialects of [Leinster](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leinster "Leinster") (*Cúige Laighean*) were made by the [Irish Folklore Commission](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Folklore_Commission "Irish Folklore Commission") and others.^[[84]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-85)^ [Newfoundland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newfoundland_(island) "Newfoundland (island)"), in eastern Canada, had a form of Irish derived from the Munster Irish of the later 18th century (see [Newfoundland Irish](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newfoundland_Irish "Newfoundland Irish")). + +### Connacht[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Irish_language&action=edit§ion=18 "Edit section: Connacht")] + +Main article: [Connacht Irish](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connacht_Irish "Connacht Irish") + +Historically, Connacht Irish represents the westernmost remnant of a dialect area which once stretched from east to west across the centre of Ireland. The strongest dialect of Connacht Irish is to be found in [Connemara](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connemara "Connemara") and the [Aran Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aran_Islands "Aran Islands"). Much closer to the larger Connacht Gaeltacht is the dialect spoken in the smaller region on the border between Galway (*Gaillimh*) and Mayo (*Maigh Eo*). There are a number of differences between the popular South Connemara form of Irish, the Mid-Connacht/Joyce Country form (on the border between Mayo and Galway) and the Achill and Erris forms in the north of the province. + +Features in Connacht Irish differing from the official standard include a preference for verbal nouns ending in *-achan*, e.g. *lagachan* instead of *lagú*, "weakening". The non-standard pronunciation of [Cois Fharraige](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cois_Fharraige "Cois Fharraige") with lengthened vowels and heavily reduced endings gives it a distinct sound. Distinguishing features of Connacht and Ulster dialect include the pronunciation of word-final /w/ as [w], rather than as [vˠ] in Munster. For example, *sliabh* ("mountain") is [ʃlʲiəw] in Connacht and Ulster as opposed to [ʃlʲiəβ] in the south. In addition Connacht and Ulster speakers tend to include the "we" pronoun rather than use the standard compound form used in Munster, e.g. *bhí muid* is used for "we were" instead of *bhíomar*. + +As in Munster Irish, some short vowels are lengthened and others diphthongised before ⟨ll, m, nn, rr, rd⟩, in monosyllabic words and in the stressed syllable of multisyllabic words where the syllable is followed by a consonant. This can be seen in *ceann* [cɑːn̪ˠ] "head", *cam* [kɑːmˠ] "crooked", *gearr* [ɟɑːɾˠ] "short", *ord* [ouɾˠd̪ˠ] "sledgehammer", *gall* [gɑːl̪ˠ] "foreigner, non-Gael", *iontas* [iːn̪ˠt̪ˠəsˠ] "a wonder, a marvel", etc. The form ⟨(a)ibh⟩, when occurring at the end of words like *agaibh*, tends to be pronounced as [iː]. + +In South Connemara, for example, there is a tendency to replace word-final /vʲ/ with /bʲ/, in word such as *sibh*, *libh* and *dóibh* (pronounced respectively as "shiv," "liv" and "*dófa*" in the other areas). This placing of the B-sound is also present at the end of words ending in vowels, such as *acu* ([ˈakəbˠ]) and '*leo* ([lʲoːbˠ]). There is also a tendency to omit /g/ in *agam*, *agat* and *againn*, a characteristic also of other Connacht dialects. All these pronunciations are distinctively regional. + +The pronunciation prevalent in the [Joyce Country](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joyce_Country "Joyce Country") (the area around [Lough Corrib](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lough_Corrib "Lough Corrib") and [Lough Mask](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lough_Mask "Lough Mask")) is quite similar to that of South Connemara, with a similar approach to the words *agam*, *agat* and *againn* and a similar approach to pronunciation of vowels and consonants but there are noticeable differences in vocabulary, with certain words such as *doiligh* (difficult) and *foscailte* being preferred to the more usual *deacair* and *oscailte*. Another interesting aspect of this sub-dialect is that almost all vowels at the end of words tend to be pronounced as [iː]: *eile* (other), *cosa* (feet) and *déanta* (done) tend to be pronounced as *eilí*, *cosaí* and *déantaí* respectively. + +The northern Mayo dialect of [Erris](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erris "Erris") (*Iorras*) and [Achill](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achill "Achill") (*Acaill*) is in grammar and [morphology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics) "Morphology (linguistics)") essentially a Connacht dialect but shows some similarities to Ulster Irish due to large-scale immigration of dispossessed people following the [Plantation of Ulster](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plantation_of_Ulster "Plantation of Ulster"). For example, words ending -⟨bh, mh⟩ have a much softer sound, with a tendency to terminate words such as *leo* and *dóibh* with ⟨f⟩, giving *leofa* and *dófa* respectively. In addition to a vocabulary typical of other area of Connacht, one also finds Ulster words like *amharc* (meaning "to look"), *nimhneach* (painful or sore), *druid* (close), *mothaigh* (hear), *doiligh* (difficult), *úr* (new), and *tig le* (to be able to -- i.e. a form similar to *féidir*). + +Irish President [Douglas Hyde](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_Hyde "Douglas Hyde") was possibly one of the last speakers of the [Roscommon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roscommon "Roscommon") dialect of Irish.^[[36]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-auto-37)^ + +### Munster[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Irish_language&action=edit§ion=19 "Edit section: Munster")] + +Main article: [Munster Irish](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Munster_Irish "Munster Irish") + +Munster Irish is the dialect spoken in the Gaeltacht areas of the counties of [Cork](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_Cork "County Cork") (*Contae Chorcaí*), [Kerry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_Kerry "County Kerry") (*Contae Chiarraí*), and [Waterford](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_Waterford "County Waterford") (*Contae Phort Láirge*). The Gaeltacht areas of Cork can be found in [Cape Clear Island](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape_Clear_Island "Cape Clear Island") (*Oileán Chléire*) and [Muskerry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muskerry "Muskerry") (*Múscraí*); those of Kerry lie in *[Corca Dhuibhne](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corca_Dhuibhne "Corca Dhuibhne")* and [Iveragh Peninsula](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iveragh_Peninsula "Iveragh Peninsula"); and those of Waterford in [Ring](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ring,_County_Waterford "Ring, County Waterford") (*An Rinn*) and [Old Parish](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Parish "Old Parish") (*An Sean Phobal*), both of which together form [Gaeltacht na nDéise](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaeltacht_na_nD%C3%A9ise "Gaeltacht na nDéise"). Of the three counties, the Irish spoken in Cork and Kerry is quite similar while that of Waterford is more distinct. + +Some typical features of Munster Irish are: + +1. The use of [synthetic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_conjugation "Irish conjugation") verbs in parallel with a pronominal subject system, thus "I must" is *caithfead* in Munster, while other dialects prefer *caithfidh mé* (*mé* means "I"). "I was" and "you were" are *bhíos* and *bhís* in Munster but more commonly *bhí mé* and *bhí tú* in other dialects. These are strong tendencies, and the personal forms *bhíos* etc. are used in the West and North, particularly when the words are last in the clause. +2. Use of [independent/dependent forms of verbs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dependent_and_independent_verb_forms "Dependent and independent verb forms") that are not included in the Standard. For example, "I see" in Munster is *chím*, which is the independent form; Ulster Irish also uses a similar form, *tchím*, whereas "I do not see" is *ní fheicim*, *feicim* being the dependent form, which is used after particles such as *ní* ("not"). *Chím* is replaced by *feicim* in the Standard. Similarly, the traditional form preserved in Munster *bheirim* "I give"/*ní thugaim* is *tugaim*/*ní thugaim* in the Standard; *gheibhim* I get/*ní bhfaighim* is *faighim*/*ní bhfaighim*. +3. When before ⟨ll, m, nn, rr, rd⟩ and so on, in monosyllabic words and in the stressed syllable of multisyllabic words where the syllable is followed by a consonant, some short vowels are lengthened while others are [diphthongised](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diphthong "Diphthong"), in *ceann* [cɑun̪ˠ] "head", *cam* [kɑumˠ] "crooked", *gearr* [ɟɑːɾˠ] "short", *ord* [oːɾˠd̪ˠ] "sledgehammer", *gall* [gɑul̪ˠ] "foreigner, non-Gael", *iontas* [uːn̪ˠt̪ˠəsˠ] "a wonder, a marvel", *compánach* [kəumˠˈpˠɑːnˠəx] "companion, mate", etc. +4. A [copular](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copula_(linguistics) "Copula (linguistics)") construction involving *ea* "it" is frequently used. Thus "I am an Irish person" can be said *is Éireannach mé* and *Éireannach is ea mé* in Munster; there is a subtle difference in meaning, however, the first choice being a simple statement of fact, while the second brings emphasis onto the word *Éireannach*. In effect the construction is a type of "[fronting](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topicalization "Topicalization")". +5. Both masculine and feminine words are subject to lenition after *insan* (*sa*/*san*) "in the", *den* "of the", and *don* "to/for the": *sa tsiopa* "in the shop", compared to the Standard *sa siopa* (the Standard lenites only feminine nouns in the dative in these cases). +6. Eclipsis of ⟨f⟩ after *sa*: *sa bhfeirm*, "in the farm", instead of *san fheirm*. +7. Eclipsis of ⟨t⟩ and ⟨d⟩ after preposition + singular article, with all prepositions except after *insan*, *den* and *don*: *ar an dtigh* "on the house", *ag an ndoras* "at the door". +8. [Stress](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress_(linguistics) "Stress (linguistics)") is generally on the second syllable of a word when the first syllable contains a short vowel, and the second syllable contains a long vowel or diphthong, or is -⟨(e)ach⟩, e.g. *Ciarán* is pronounced [[[ciəˈɾˠaːn̪ˠ]]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Irish "Help:IPA/Irish") opposed to [ˈciəɾˠaːn̪ˠ] in Connacht and Ulster. + +### Ulster[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Irish_language&action=edit§ion=20 "Edit section: Ulster")] + +Main article: [Ulster Irish](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulster_Irish "Ulster Irish") + +Ulster Irish is the dialect spoken in the Gaeltacht regions of Donegal. These regions contain all of Ulster's communities where Irish has been spoken in an unbroken line back to when the language was the dominant language of Ireland. The Irish-speaking communities in other parts of Ulster are a result of language revival -- English-speaking families deciding to learn Irish. Census data shows that 4,130 people speak it at home. + +Linguistically, the most important of the [Ulster](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulster "Ulster") dialects today is that which is spoken, with slight differences, in both [Gweedore](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gweedore "Gweedore") (*Gaoth Dobhair* = Inlet of Streaming Water) and [The Rosses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Rosses "The Rosses") (*na Rossa*). + +Ulster Irish sounds quite different from the other two main dialects. It shares several features with southern dialects of [Scottish Gaelic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic "Scottish Gaelic") and [Manx](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manx_language "Manx language"), as well as having many characteristic words and shades of meanings. However, since the demise of those Irish dialects spoken natively in what is today Northern Ireland, it is probably an exaggeration to see present-day Ulster Irish as an intermediary form between Scottish Gaelic and the southern and western dialects of Irish. Northern Scottish Gaelic has many non-Ulster features in common with Munster Irish. + +One noticeable trait of Ulster Irish, Scots Gaelic and Manx is the use of the negative particle *cha(n)* in place of the Munster and Connacht *ní*. Though southern Donegal Irish tends to use *ní* more than *cha(n)*, *cha(n)* has almost ousted *ní* in northernmost dialects (e.g. [Rosguill](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosguill "Rosguill") and [Tory Island](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tory_Island "Tory Island")), though even in these areas *níl* "is not" is more common than *chan fhuil* or *cha bhfuil*.^[[85]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-86)^^[[86]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-87)^ Another noticeable trait is the pronunciation of the first person singular verb ending *-(a)im* as *-(e)am*, also common to the Isle of Man and Scotland (Munster/Connacht *siúlaim* "I walk", Ulster *siúlam*). + +### Leinster[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Irish_language&action=edit§ion=21 "Edit section: Leinster")] + +Down to the early 19th century and even later, Irish was spoken in all twelve counties of Leinster. The evidence furnished by placenames, literary sources and recorded speech indicates that there was no Leinster dialect as such. Instead, the main dialect used in the province was represented by a broad central belt stretching from west Connacht eastwards to the [Liffey estuary](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_Liffey "River Liffey") and southwards to [Wexford](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wexford "Wexford"), though with many local variations. Two smaller dialects were represented by the Ulster speech of counties Meath and Louth, which extended as far south as the [Boyne valley](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_Boyne "River Boyne"), and a Munster dialect found in Kilkenny and south Laois. + +The main dialect had characteristics which survive today only in the Irish of Connacht. It typically placed the stress on the first syllable of a word, and showed a preference (found in placenames) for the pronunciation ⟨cr⟩ where the standard spelling is ⟨cn⟩. The word *cnoc* (hill) would therefore be pronounced *croc*. Examples are the placenames Crooksling (*Cnoc Slinne*) in County Dublin and Crukeen (*Cnoicín*) in Carlow. East Leinster showed the same diphthongisation or vowel lengthening as in Munster and Connacht Irish in words like *poll* (hole), *cill* (monastery), *coill* (wood), *ceann* (head), *cam* (crooked) and *dream* (crowd). A feature of the dialect was the pronunciation of ⟨ao⟩, which generally became [eː] in east Leinster (as in Munster), and [iː] in the west (as in Connacht).^[[87]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-88)^ + +Early evidence regarding colloquial Irish in east Leinster is found in *The Fyrst Boke of the Introduction of Knowledge* (1547), by the English physician and traveller Andrew Borde.^[[88]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-89)^ The illustrative phrases he uses include the following: + +| English | Leinster Irish | +| Anglicised spelling | Irish spelling | +| How are you? | *Kanys stato?* | [*Canas 'tá tú?*] | +| I am well, thank you | *Tam a goomah gramahagood.* | [*Tá mé go maith, go raibh maith agat.*] | +| Sir, can you speak Irish? | *Sor, woll galow oket?* | [*Sir, 'bhfuil Gaeilig [Gaela'] agat?*] | +| Wife, give me bread! | *Benytee, toor haran!* | [*A bhean an tí, tabhair arán!*] | +| How far is it to Waterford? | *Gath haad o showh go part laarg?*. | [*Gá fhad as [a] seo go Port Láirge?*] | +| It is one a twenty mile. | *Myle hewryht.* | [*Míle a haon ar fhichid.*] | +| When shall I go to sleep, wife? | *Gah hon rah moyd holow?* | [*Gathain a rachamaoid a chodladh?*] | + +#### The Pale[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Irish_language&action=edit§ion=22 "Edit section: The Pale")] + +[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/The_Pale_According_to_the_Statute_of_1488.jpg/190px-The_Pale_According_to_the_Statute_of_1488.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Pale_According_to_the_Statute_of_1488.jpg) + +[The Pale](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Pale "The Pale") -- According to Statute of 1488 + +[The Pale](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Pale "The Pale") (*An Pháil*) was an area around late medieval Dublin under the control of the English government. By the late 15th century it consisted of an area along the coast from [Dalkey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dalkey "Dalkey"), south of [Dublin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dublin "Dublin"), to the garrison town of [Dundalk](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dundalk "Dundalk"), with an inland boundary encompassing [Naas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naas "Naas") and [Leixlip](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leixlip "Leixlip") in the [Earldom of Kildare](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earldom_of_Kildare "Earldom of Kildare") and [Trim](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trim,_County_Meath "Trim, County Meath") and [Kells](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kells,_County_Meath "Kells, County Meath") in County Meath to the north. In this area of "Englyshe tunge" English had never actually been a dominant language -- and was moreover a relatively late comer; the first colonisers were Normans who spoke Norman French, and before these Norse. The Irish language had always been the language of the bulk of the population. An English official remarked of the Pale in 1515 that "all the common people of the said half counties that obeyeth the King's laws, for the most part be of Irish birth, of Irish habit and of Irish language".^[[89]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-90)^ + +With the strengthening of English cultural and political control, language change began to occur but this did not become clearly evident until the 18th century. Even then, in the decennial period 1771--81, the percentage of Irish speakers in Meath was at least 41%. By 1851 this had fallen to less than 3%.^[[90]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-Fitzgerald-91)^ + +#### General decline[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Irish_language&action=edit§ion=23 "Edit section: General decline")] + +English expanded strongly in Leinster in the 18th century but Irish speakers were still numerous. In the decennial period 1771--81 certain counties had estimated percentages of Irish speakers as follows (though the estimates are likely to be too low):^[[90]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-Fitzgerald-91)^ + +Kilkenny 57% + +Louth 57% + +Longford 22% + +Westmeath 17% + +The language saw its most rapid initial decline in counties Dublin, Kildare, Laois, Wexford, and Wicklow. In recent years, County Wicklow has been noted as having the lowest percentage of Irish speakers of any county in Ireland, with only 0.14% of its population claiming to have passable knowledge of the language.^[[91]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-92)^ The proportion of Irish-speaking children in Leinster went down as follows: 17% in the 1700s, 11% in the 1800s, 3% in the 1830s, and virtually none in the 1860s.^[[92]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-93)^ The Irish census of 1851 showed that there were still a number of older speakers in County Dublin.^[[90]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-Fitzgerald-91)^ Sound recordings were made between 1928 and 1931 of some of the last speakers in [Omeath](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omeath "Omeath"), County Louth (now available in digital form).^[[93]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-94)^ The last known traditional native speaker in Omeath, and in Leinster as a whole, was Annie O'Hanlon (née Dobbin), who died in 1960.^[[28]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-%C3%93_Gr%C3%A1da-29)^ Her dialect was, in fact, a branch of the Irish of south-east Ulster.^[[94]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-95)^ + +### Urban use from the Middle Ages to the 19th century[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Irish_language&action=edit§ion=24 "Edit section: Urban use from the Middle Ages to the 19th century")] + +Irish was spoken as a community language in Irish towns and cities down to the 19th century. In the 16th and 17th centuries it was widespread even in Dublin and the Pale. The English administrator [William Gerard](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Gerard "William Gerard") (1518--1581) commented as follows: "All English, and the most part with delight, even in Dublin, speak Irish,"^[[95]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-96)^ while the [Old English](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normans_in_Ireland "Normans in Ireland") historian [Richard Stanihurst](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Stanihurst "Richard Stanihurst") (1547--1618) lamented that "When their posterity became not altogether so wary in keeping, as their ancestors were valiant in conquering, the Irish language was free dennized in the English Pale: this canker took such deep root, as the body that before was whole and sound, was by little and little festered, and in manner wholly putrified".^[[96]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-97)^ + +The Irish of Dublin, situated as it was between the east Ulster dialect of Meath and Louth to the north and the Leinster-Connacht dialect further south, may have reflected the characteristics of both in phonology and grammar. In County Dublin itself the general rule was to place the stress on the initial vowel of words. With time it appears that the forms of the dative case took over the other case endings in the plural (a tendency found to a lesser extent in other dialects). In a letter written in Dublin in 1691 we find such examples as the following: *gnóthuimh* (accusative case, the standard form being *gnóthaí*), *tíorthuibh* (accusative case, the standard form being *tíortha*) and *leithscéalaibh* (genitive case, the standard form being *leithscéalta*).^[[97]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-98)^ + +English authorities of the Cromwellian period, aware that Irish was widely spoken in Dublin, arranged for its official use. In 1655 several local dignitaries were ordered to oversee a lecture in Irish to be given in Dublin. In March 1656 a converted Catholic priest, Séamas Corcy, was appointed to preach in Irish at Bride's parish every Sunday, and was also ordered to preach at [Drogheda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drogheda "Drogheda") and [Athy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athy "Athy").^[[98]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-99)^ In 1657 the English colonists in Dublin presented a petition to the Municipal Council complaining that in Dublin itself "there is Irish commonly and usually spoken".^[[99]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-100)^ + +There is contemporary evidence of the use of Irish in other urban areas at the time. In 1657 it was found necessary to have an Oath of Abjuration (rejecting the authority of the Pope) read in Irish in [Cork](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cork_(city) "Cork (city)") so that people could understand it.^[[100]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-101)^ + +Irish was sufficiently strong in early 18th century Dublin to be the language of a coterie of poets and scribes led by Seán and Tadhg Ó Neachtain, both poets of note.^[[101]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-102)^ Scribal activity in Irish persisted in Dublin right through the 18th century. An outstanding example was Muiris Ó Gormáin (Maurice Gorman), a prolific producer of manuscripts who advertised his services (in English) in *Faulkner's Dublin Journal*.^[[102]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-103)^ There were still an appreciable number of Irish speakers in [County Dublin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_Dublin "County Dublin") at the time of the 1851 census.^[[103]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-104)^ + +In other urban centres the descendants of medieval Anglo-Norman settlers, the so-called [Old English](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normans_in_Ireland "Normans in Ireland"), were Irish-speaking or bilingual by the 16th century.^[[104]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-105)^ The English administrator and traveller [Fynes Moryson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fynes_Moryson "Fynes Moryson"), writing in the last years of the 16th century, said that "the English Irish and the very citizens (excepting those of Dublin where the lord deputy resides) though they could speak English as well as we, yet commonly speak Irish among themselves, and were hardly induced by our familiar conversation to speak English with us".^[[105]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-106)^ In Galway, a city dominated by Old English merchants and loyal to the Crown up to the [Irish Confederate Wars](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Confederate_Wars "Irish Confederate Wars") (1641--1653), the use of the Irish language had already provoked the passing of an Act of [Henry VIII](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_VIII_of_England "Henry VIII of England") (1536), ordaining as follows: + +*Item, that every inhabitant within oure said towne [Galway] endeavour themselfes to speake English, and to use themselfes after the English facon; and, speciallye, that you, and every one of you, doe put your children to scole, to lerne to speke English...*^[[106]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-107)^ + +The demise of native cultural institutions in the seventeenth century saw the social prestige of Irish diminish, and the gradual Anglicisation of the middle classes followed.^[[107]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-108)^ The census of 1851 showed, however, that the towns and cities of Munster still had significant Irish-speaking populations. Much earlier, in 1819, James McQuige, a veteran [Methodist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodism "Methodism") lay preacher in Irish, wrote: "In some of the largest southern towns, Cork, [Kinsale](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinsale "Kinsale") and even the Protestant town of [Bandon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bandon,_County_Cork "Bandon, County Cork"), provisions are sold in the markets, and cried in the streets, in Irish".^[[108]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-109)^ Irish speakers constituted over 40% of the population of Cork even in 1851.^[[109]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-110)^ + +### Modern urban usage[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Irish_language&action=edit§ion=25 "Edit section: Modern urban usage")] + +The late 18th and 19th centuries saw a reduction in the number of Dublin's Irish speakers, in keeping with the trend elsewhere. This continued until the end of the 19th century, when the [Gaelic revival](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaelic_revival "Gaelic revival") saw the creation of a strong Irish--speaking network, typically united by various branches of the *[Conradh na Gaeilge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conradh_na_Gaeilge "Conradh na Gaeilge")*, and accompanied by renewed literary activity.^[[110]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-111)^ By the 1930s Dublin had a lively literary life in Irish.^[[111]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-112)^ + +Urban Irish has been the beneficiary, from the last decades of the 20th century, of a rapidly expanding system of *[Gaelscoileanna](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaelscoil "Gaelscoil")*, teaching entirely through Irish. As of 2019 there are 37 such primary schools in Dublin alone.^[[112]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-113)^ + +It has been suggested that Ireland's towns and cities are acquiring a critical mass of Irish speakers, reflected in the expansion of Irish language media.^[[113]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-schism-114)^ Many are younger speakers who, after encountering Irish at school, made an effort to acquire fluency, while others have been educated through Irish and some have been raised with Irish. Those from an English-speaking background are now often described as *nuachainteoirí* ("new speakers") and use whatever opportunities are available (festivals, "pop-up" events) to practise or improve their Irish.^[[114]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-115)^ + +It has been suggested that the comparative standard is still the Irish of the Gaeltacht,^[[115]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-Seoighe-116)^ but other evidence suggests that young urban speakers take pride in having their own distinctive variety of the language.^[[116]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-117)^ A comparison of traditional Irish and urban Irish shows that the distinction between broad and slender consonants, which is fundamental to Irish phonology and grammar, is not fully or consistently observed in urban Irish. This and other changes make it possible that urban Irish will become a new dialect or even, over a long period, develop into a creole (i.e. a new language) distinct from Gaeltacht Irish.^[[113]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-schism-114)^ It has also been argued that there is a certain elitism among Irish speakers, with most respect being given to the Irish of native Gaeltacht speakers and with "Dublin" (i.e. urban) Irish being under-represented in the media.^[[117]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-Nic_Mhuiris-118)^ This, however, is paralleled by a failure among some urban Irish speakers to acknowledge grammatical and phonological features essential to the structure of the language.^[[113]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-schism-114)^ + +### Standardisation[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Irish_language&action=edit§ion=26 "Edit section: Standardisation")] + +Main article: [An Caighdeán Oifigiúil](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Caighde%C3%A1n_Oifigi%C3%BAil "An Caighdeán Oifigiúil") + +There is no single official standard for pronouncing the Irish language. Certain dictionaries, such as *Foclóir Póca*, provide a single pronunciation. Online dictionaries such as *Foclóir Béarla-Gaeilge*^[[118]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-119)^ provide audio files in the three major dialects. The differences between dialects are considerable, and have led to recurrent difficulties in conceptualising a "standard Irish." In recent decades contacts between speakers of different dialects have become more frequent and the differences between the dialects are less noticeable.^[[119]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-120)^ + +*An Caighdeán Oifigiúil* ("The Official Standard"), often shortened to *An Caighdeán*, is a standard for the spelling and grammar of written Irish, developed and used by the Irish government. Its rules are followed by most schools in Ireland, though schools in and near Irish-speaking regions also use the local dialect. It was published by the translation department of *[Dáil Éireann](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%A1il_%C3%89ireann "Dáil Éireann")* in 1953^[[120]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-blas-121)^ and updated in 2012^[[121]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-122)^ and 2017. + +Phonology[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Irish_language&action=edit§ion=27 "Edit section: Phonology")] +----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +Main article: [Irish phonology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_phonology "Irish phonology") + +In pronunciation, Irish most closely resembles its nearest relatives, [Scottish Gaelic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic "Scottish Gaelic") and [Manx](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manx_language "Manx language"). One notable feature is that consonants (except /h/) come in pairs, one "broad" ([velarised](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velarization "Velarization"), pronounced with the back of the tongue pulled back towards the soft palate) and one "slender" ([palatalised](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics) "Palatalization (phonetics)"), pronounced with the middle of the tongue pushed up towards the hard palate). While broad--slender pairs are not unique to Irish (being found, for example, in [Russian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_language "Russian language")), in Irish they have a grammatical function. + +Consonant phonemes +| | [Labial](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labial_consonant "Labial consonant") | [Coronal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_consonant "Coronal consonant") | [Dorsal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorsal_consonant "Dorsal consonant") | [Glottal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glottal_consonant "Glottal consonant") | +| [broad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velarization "Velarization") | [slender](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics) "Palatalization (phonetics)") | [broad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velarization "Velarization") | [slender](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics) "Palatalization (phonetics)") | [broad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velarization "Velarization") | [slender](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics) "Palatalization (phonetics)") | +| [Stop](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stop_consonant "Stop consonant") | [voiceless](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voice_(phonetics) "Voice (phonetics)") | [pˠ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velarization "Velarization") | [pʲ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics) "Palatalization (phonetics)") | [t̪ˠ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dental_consonant "Dental consonant") | [tʲ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics) "Palatalization (phonetics)") | [k](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive "Voiceless velar plosive") | [c](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_plosive "Voiceless palatal plosive") | | +| [voiced](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voice_(phonetics) "Voice (phonetics)") | [bˠ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velarization "Velarization") | [bʲ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics) "Palatalization (phonetics)") | [d̪ˠ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dental_consonant "Dental consonant") | [dʲ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics) "Palatalization (phonetics)") | [ɡ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive "Voiced velar plosive") | [ɟ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiced_palatal_plosive "Voiced palatal plosive") | | +| [Continuant](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuant_consonant "Continuant consonant") | [voiceless](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voice_(phonetics) "Voice (phonetics)") | [fˠ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velarization "Velarization") | [fʲ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics) "Palatalization (phonetics)") | [sˠ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velarization "Velarization") | [ʃ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative "Voiceless postalveolar fricative") | [x](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiceless_velar_fricative "Voiceless velar fricative") | [ç](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_fricative "Voiceless palatal fricative") | [h](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative "Voiceless glottal fricative") | +| [voiced](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voice_(phonetics) "Voice (phonetics)") | [w](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant "Voiced labial--velar approximant") | [vʲ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics) "Palatalization (phonetics)") | [l̪ˠ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velarized_dental_lateral_approximant "Velarized dental lateral approximant") | [lʲ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics) "Palatalization (phonetics)") | [ɣ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiced_velar_fricative "Voiced velar fricative") | [j](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant "Voiced palatal approximant") | | +| [Nasal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasal_stop "Nasal stop") | [mˠ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velarization "Velarization") | [mʲ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics) "Palatalization (phonetics)") | [n̪ˠ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dental_consonant "Dental consonant") | [nʲ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics) "Palatalization (phonetics)") | [ŋ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiced_velar_nasal "Voiced velar nasal") | [ɲ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiced_palatal_nasal "Voiced palatal nasal") | | +| [Tap](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flap_consonant "Flap consonant") | | | [ɾˠ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velarization "Velarization") | [ɾʲ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics) "Palatalization (phonetics)") | | | | + +Vowel phonemes +| | [Front](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Front_vowel "Front vowel") | [Central](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_vowel "Central vowel") | [Back](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Back_vowel "Back vowel") | +| [short](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vowel_length "Vowel length") | [long](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vowel_length "Vowel length") | [short](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vowel_length "Vowel length") | [short](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vowel_length "Vowel length") | [long](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vowel_length "Vowel length") | +| [Close](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Close_vowel "Close vowel") | [ɪ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-close_near-front_unrounded_vowel "Near-close near-front unrounded vowel") | [iː](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel "Close front unrounded vowel") | | [ʊ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-close_near-back_rounded_vowel "Near-close near-back rounded vowel") | [uː](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel "Close back rounded vowel") | +| [Mid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mid_vowel "Mid vowel") | [ɛ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open-mid_front_unrounded_vowel "Open-mid front unrounded vowel") | [eː](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel "Close-mid front unrounded vowel") | [ə](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mid_central_vowel "Mid central vowel") | [ɔ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open-mid_back_rounded_vowel "Open-mid back rounded vowel") | [oː](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel "Close-mid back rounded vowel") | +| [Open](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_vowel "Open vowel") | | | [a](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel "Open front unrounded vowel") | | [ɑː](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_back_unrounded_vowel "Open back unrounded vowel") | + +The [diphthongs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diphthongs "Diphthongs") of Irish are /iə, uə, əi, əu/. + +Syntax and morphology[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Irish_language&action=edit§ion=28 "Edit section: Syntax and morphology")] +----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +Main articles: [Irish grammar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_grammar "Irish grammar"), [Irish declension](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_declension "Irish declension"), [Irish conjugation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_conjugation "Irish conjugation"), and [Irish syntax](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_syntax "Irish syntax") + +Irish is a [fusional](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusional_language "Fusional language"), [VSO](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verb-subject-object "Verb-subject-object"), [nominative-accusative language](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nominative-accusative_language "Nominative-accusative language"). It is neither [verb](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verb_framing "Verb framing") nor [satellite framed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verb_framing "Verb framing"), and makes liberal use of [deictic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deixis "Deixis") verbs. + +Nouns [decline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declension "Declension") for 3 [numbers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_number "Grammatical number"): [singular](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_number#Singular_versus_plural "Grammatical number"), [dual](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual_(grammatical_number) "Dual (grammatical number)") (only in conjunction with the number *dhá* "two"), [plural](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plural "Plural"); 2 [genders](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_gender "Grammatical gender"): masculine, feminine; and 4 [cases](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_case "Grammatical case"): [nomino](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nominative "Nominative")-[accusative](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accusative "Accusative") (*ainmneach*), [vocative](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vocative "Vocative") (*gairmeach*), [genitive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genitive "Genitive") (*ginideach*), and [prepositional](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prepositional_case "Prepositional case")-[locative](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Locative_case "Locative case") (*tabharthach*), with fossilised traces of the older [accusative](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accusative_case "Accusative case") (*cuspóireach*). [Adjectives](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adjective "Adjective") [agree](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agreement_(linguistics) "Agreement (linguistics)") with nouns in [number](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_number "Grammatical number"), [gender](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_gender "Grammatical gender"), and [case](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_case "Grammatical case"). Adjectives generally follow nouns, though some precede or [prefix](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prefix "Prefix") nouns. [Demonstrative](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demonstrative "Demonstrative") [adjectives](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adjective "Adjective") have [proximal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demonstrative#Distal_and_proximal_demonstratives "Demonstrative"), [medial](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demonstrative#Distal_and_proximal_demonstratives "Demonstrative"), and [distal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demonstrative#Distal_and_proximal_demonstratives "Demonstrative") forms. The [prepositional](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prepositional "Prepositional")-[locative](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Locative "Locative") case is called the [dative](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dative "Dative") by convention, though it originates in the Proto-Celtic ablative. + +Verbs [conjugate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_conjugation "Grammatical conjugation") for 3 [tenses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_tense "Grammatical tense"): [past](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense "Past tense"), [present](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Present_tense "Present tense"), [future](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Future_tense "Future tense"); 2 [aspects](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_aspect "Grammatical aspect"): [perfective](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uses_of_English_verb_forms#perfective "Uses of English verb forms"), [imperfective](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperfective "Imperfective"); 2 numbers: [singular](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_number#Singular_versus_plural "Grammatical number"), [plural](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plural "Plural"); 4 [moods](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_mood "Grammatical mood"): [indicative](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indicative_mood "Indicative mood"), [subjunctive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subjunctive_mood "Subjunctive mood"), [conditional](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conditional_mood "Conditional mood"), [imperative](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperative_mood "Imperative mood"); 2 relative forms, the present and future relative; and in some verbs, [independent](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dependent_and_independent_verb_forms "Dependent and independent verb forms") and [dependent](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dependent_and_independent_verb_forms "Dependent and independent verb forms") forms. Verbs [conjugate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_conjugation "Grammatical conjugation") for 3 [persons](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_person "Grammatical person") and an impersonal form which is [actor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agent_(grammar) "Agent (grammar)")-free; the 3rd person singular acts as a person-free personal form that can be followed or otherwise refer to any person or number. + +There are two verbs for "to be", one for [inherent qualities](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essence "Essence") with only two forms, *is* "present" and *ba* "past" and "conditional", and one for [transient qualities](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Substance_theory#Aristotle "Substance theory"), with a full complement of forms except for the verbal adjective. The two verbs share the one verbal noun. + +Irish verb formation employs a mixed system during conjugation, with both [analytic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytic_language "Analytic language") and [synthetic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synthetic_language "Synthetic language") methods employed depending on tense, number, mood and person. For example, in the official standard, present tense verbs have conjugated forms only in the 1st person and autonomous forms (i.e. *molaim* 'I praise', *molaimid* 'we praise', *moltar* 'is praised, one praises' ), whereas all other persons are conveyed analytically (i.e. *molann sé* 'he praises', *molann sibh* 'you pl. praise'). The ratio of analytic to synthetic forms in a given verb paradigm varies between the various tenses and moods. The conditional, imperative and past habitual forms prefer synthetic forms in most persons and numbers, whereas the subjunctive, past, future and present forms prefer mostly analytical forms. + +The meaning of the [passive voice](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passive_voice "Passive voice") is largely conveyed through the autonomous verb form, however there also exist other structures analogous to the [passival](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_passive_voice "English passive voice") and [resultative](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resultative "Resultative") constructions. There are also a number of preverbal [particles](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_particle "Grammatical particle") marking the [negative](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affirmative_and_negative "Affirmative and negative"), [interrogative](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interrogative "Interrogative"), [subjunctive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subjunctive_mood "Subjunctive mood"), [relative clauses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relative_clause "Relative clause"), etc. There is a [verbal noun](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verbal_noun "Verbal noun") and [verbal adjective](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verbal_adjective "Verbal adjective"). Verb forms are highly [regular](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflection#Regular_and_irregular_inflection "Inflection"), many grammars recognise only [11 irregular verbs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_conjugation#Irregular_verbs "Irish conjugation"). + +[Prepositions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preposition_and_postposition "Preposition and postposition") [inflect](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflection "Inflection") for [person](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_person "Grammatical person") and [number](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_number "Grammatical number"). Different prepositions [govern](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_(linguistics) "Government (linguistics)") different [cases](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_case "Grammatical case"). In Old and Middle Irish, prepositions [governed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_(linguistics) "Government (linguistics)") different cases depending on intended [semantics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantics "Semantics"); this has disappeared in Modern Irish except in fossilised form. + +Irish has no verb to express having; instead, the word *ag* ("at", etc.) is used in conjunction with the transient "be" verb *bheith*: + +- *Tá leabhar* agam. "I have a book." (Literally, "there is a book at me", cf. Russian У меня есть книга, Finnish *minulla on kirja*, French *le livre est à moi*) +- *Tá leabhar* agat. "You (singular) have a book." +- *Tá leabhar* aige. "He has a book." +- *Tá leabhar* aici. "She has a book." +- *Tá leabhar* againn. "We have a book." +- *Tá leabhar* agaibh. "You (plural) have a book." +- *Tá leabhar* acu. "They have a book." + +[Numerals](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerals_(linguistics) "Numerals (linguistics)") have three forms: abstract, general and ordinal. The numbers from 2 to 10 (and these in combination with higher numbers) are rarely used for people, numeral nominals being used instead: + +- *a dó* "Two." +- *dhá leabhar* "Two books." +- *beirt* "Two people, a couple", *beirt fhear* "Two men", *beirt bhan* "Two women". +- *dara*, *tarna* (free variation) "Second." + +Irish has both decimal and vigesimal systems: + +10: *a deich* + +20: *fiche* + +30: vigesimal -- *a deich is fiche*; decimal -- *tríocha* + +40: v. *daichead, dá fhichead*; d. *ceathracha* + +50: v. *a deich is daichead*; d. *caoga* (also: *leathchéad* "half-hundred") + +60: v. *trí fichid*; d. *seasca* + +70: v. *a deich is trí fichid*; d. *seachtó* + +80: v. *cheithre fichid*; d. *ochtó* + +90: v. *a deich is cheithre fichid*; d. *nócha* + +100: v. *cúig fichid*; d. *céad* + +A number such as 35 has various forms: + +*a cúigdéag is fichid* "15 and 20" + +*a cúig is tríocha* "5 and 30" + +*a cúigdéag ar fhichid* "15 on 20" + +*a cúig ar thríochaid* "5 on 30" + +*a cúigdéag fichead* "15 of 20 (genitive)" + +*a cúig tríochad* "5 of 30 (genitive)" + +*fiche 's a cúigdéag* "20 and 15" + +*tríocha 's a cúig* "30 and 5" + +The latter is most commonly used in mathematics. + +### Initial mutations[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Irish_language&action=edit§ion=29 "Edit section: Initial mutations")] + +Main article: [Irish initial mutations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_initial_mutations "Irish initial mutations") + +In Irish, there are two classes of initial [consonant mutations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consonant_mutation "Consonant mutation"), which express grammatical relationship and meaning in verbs, nouns and adjectives: + +- [Lenition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenition "Lenition") (*séimhiú*) describes the change of [stops](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plosive "Plosive") into [fricatives](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fricative "Fricative").^[[122]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-123)^ Indicated in [Gaelic type](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaelic_type "Gaelic type") by an [overdot](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dot_(diacritic)#Overdot "Dot (diacritic)") (*ponc séimhithe*), it is shown in [Roman type](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_type "Roman type") by adding an ⟨h⟩. + - *caith!* "throw!" -- *chaith mé* "I threw" (lenition as a past-tense marker, caused by the particle *do*, now generally omitted) + - *gá* "requirement" -- *easpa an ghá* "lack of the requirement" (lenition marking the genitive case of a masculine noun) + - *Seán* "John" -- *a Sheáin!* "John!" (lenition as part of the vocative case, the vocative lenition being triggered by *a*, the vocative marker before *Sheáin*) +- [Eclipsis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_initial_mutations#Eclipsis "Irish initial mutations") (*urú*) covers the voicing of voiceless stops, and [nasalisation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasalisation "Nasalisation") of voiced stops. + - *Athair* "Father" -- *ár nAthair* "our Father" + - *tús* "start", *ar dtús* "at the start" + - *Gaillimh* "Galway" -- *i nGaillimh* "in Galway" + +Mutations are often the only way to distinguish grammatical forms. For example, the only non-contextual way to distinguish [possessive pronouns](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pronoun#Possessive "Pronoun") "her", "his" and "their", is through initial mutations since all meanings are represented by the same word *a*. + +- his shoe -- *a bhróg* (lenition) +- their shoe -- *a mbróg* (eclipsis) +- her shoe -- *a bróg* (unchanged) + +Due to [initial mutation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_initial_mutations "Irish initial mutations"), [prefixes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prefix "Prefix"), [clitics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clitic "Clitic"), [suffixes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suffix "Suffix"), [root](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Root_(linguistics) "Root (linguistics)") [inflection](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflection "Inflection"), ending [morphology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics) "Morphology (linguistics)"), [elision](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elision "Elision"), [sandhi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandhi "Sandhi"), [epenthesis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epenthesis "Epenthesis"), and [assimilation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assimilation_(phonology) "Assimilation (phonology)"); the beginning, core, and end of words can each change radically and even simultaneously depending on context. + +Orthography[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Irish_language&action=edit§ion=30 "Edit section: Orthography")] +--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +Main article: [Irish orthography](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_orthography "Irish orthography") + +[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Badge_of_the_Irish_Defence_Forces.svg/220px-Badge_of_the_Irish_Defence_Forces.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Badge_of_the_Irish_Defence_Forces.svg) + +The official symbol of the Irish Defence Forces, showing a Gaelic typeface with dot diacritics + +A native [writing system](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Writing_system "Writing system"), [Ogham](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ogham "Ogham"), was used to write Primitive Irish and Old Irish until [Latin script](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_script "Latin script") was introduced in the 5th century [CE](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_Era "Common Era").^[[123]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-124)^ Since the introduction of Latin script, the main [typeface](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typeface "Typeface") used to write Irish was [Gaelic type](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaelic_type "Gaelic type") until it was replaced by [Roman type](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_type "Roman type") during the mid-20th century. + +The traditional Irish [alphabet](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alphabet "Alphabet") (*áibítir*) consists of 18 [letters](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letter_(alphabet) "Letter (alphabet)"): ⟨a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, l, m, n, o, p, r, s, t, u⟩; it does not contain ⟨j, k, q, v, w, x, y, z⟩.^[[124]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-125)^^[[125]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-126)^ However contemporary Irish uses the full Latin alphabet, with the previously unused letter used in modern [loanwords](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loanword "Loanword"); ⟨v⟩ occurs in a small number of (mainly [onomatopoeic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onomatopoeia "Onomatopoeia")) native words and [colloquialisms](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colloquialism "Colloquialism"). + +Vowels may be [accented](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diacritic "Diacritic") with an [acute accent](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acute_accent "Acute accent") (⟨á, é, í, ó, ú⟩; Irish and [Hiberno-English](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiberno-English "Hiberno-English"): *(síneadh) fada* "long (sign)"), but it is ignored for purposes of alphabetisation.^[[126]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-127)^ It is used, among other conventions, to mark [long vowels](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vowel_length "Vowel length"), e.g. ⟨e⟩ is /ɛ/ and ⟨é⟩ is /eː/. + +The [overdot](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dot_(diacritic)#Overdot "Dot (diacritic)") (*ponc séimhithe* "dot of lenition") was used in traditional [orthography](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthography "Orthography") to indicate [lenition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenition "Lenition"); An Caighdeán uses a following ⟨h⟩ for this purpose, i.e. the dotted letters (*litreacha buailte* "struck letters") ⟨ḃ, ċ, ḋ, ḟ, ġ, ṁ, ṗ, ṡ, ṫ⟩ are equivalent to ⟨bh, ch, dh, fh, gh, mh, ph, sh, th⟩. + +The use of Gaelic type and the overdot today is restricted to when a traditional style is consciously being used, e.g. *Óglaiġ na h-Éireann* on the [Irish Defence Forces cap badge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Defence_Forces_cap_badge "Irish Defence Forces cap badge") (see [above](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#Orthography)). Extending the use of the overdot to Roman type would theoretically have the advantage of making Irish texts significantly shorter, e.g. *gheobhaidh sibh* "you (pl.) will get" would become *ġeoḃaiḋ siḃ*. + +### Spelling reform[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Irish_language&action=edit§ion=31 "Edit section: Spelling reform")] + +Around the time of the [Second World War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_World_War "Second World War"), Séamas Daltún, in charge of [Rannóg an Aistriúcháin](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rann%C3%B3g_an_Aistri%C3%BAch%C3%A1in&action=edit&redlink=1 "Rannóg an Aistriúcháin (page does not exist)") [[ga](https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rann%C3%B3g_an_Aistri%C3%BAch%C3%A1in "ga:Rannóg an Aistriúcháin")] (The Translation Department of the [Irish government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_government "Irish government")), issued his own guidelines about how to [standardise](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_language "Standard language") Irish [spelling](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spelling "Spelling") and [grammar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammar "Grammar"). This [de facto](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_facto "De facto") standard was subsequently approved by the State and developed into *[an Caighdeán Oifigiúil](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Caighde%C3%A1n_Oifigi%C3%BAil "An Caighdeán Oifigiúil")*, which simplified and standardised the orthography and grammar by removing inter-dialectal [silent letters](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silent_letter "Silent letter") and simplifying vowel combinations. Where multiple versions existed in different dialects for the same word, one was selected, for example: + +- *beirbhiughadh* → *beiriú* "cook" +- *biadh* → *bia* "food" +- *Gaedhealg* / *Gaedhilg* / *Gaedhealaing* / *Gaeilic* / *Gaelainn* / *Gaoidhealg* / *Gaolainn* → *Gaeilge* "Irish language" + +*An Caighdeán* does not reflect all dialects to the same degree, e.g. *cruaidh* /kɾˠuəj/ "hard", *leabaidh* /ˈl̠ʲabˠəj/ "bed", and *tráigh* /t̪ˠɾˠaːj/ "beach" were standardised as *crua*, *leaba*, and *trá* despite the reformed spellings only reflecting South Connacht realisations [kɾˠuə], [ˈl̠ʲabˠə], and [t̪ˠɾˠaː], failing to represent the other dialectal realisations [kɾˠui], [ˈl̠ʲabˠi], and [t̪ˠɾˠaːi] (in Mayo and Ulster) or [kɾˠuəɟ], [ˈl̠ʲabˠəɟ], and [t̪ˠɾˠaːɟ] (in Munster), which were previously represented by the pre-reformed spellings.^[[127]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-128)^ For this reason, the pre-reform spellings are used by some speakers to reflect the dialectal pronunciations. + +Other examples include the genitive of *bia* "food" (/bʲiə/; pre-reform *biadh*) and *saol* "life, world" (/sˠeːlˠ/; pre-reform *saoghal*), realised [bʲiːɟ] and [sˠeːlʲ] in Munster, reflecting the pre-Caighdeán spellings *bídh* and *saoghail*, which were standardised as *bia* and *saoil* despite not representing the Munster pronunciations.^[[128]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-129)^^[[129]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-130)^ + +Sample text[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Irish_language&action=edit§ion=32 "Edit section: Sample text")] +--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +**Article 1 of the [Universal Declaration of Human Rights](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights "Universal Declaration of Human Rights")** + +| **Irish**:\ +*Saolaítear gach duine den chine daonna saor agus comhionann i ndínit agus i gcearta. Tá bua an réasúin agus an choinsiasa acu agus ba cheart dóibh gníomhú i dtreo a chéile i spiorad an bhráithreachais.*^[[130]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-131)^ | **English**:\ +All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.^[[131]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-132)^ | + +See also[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Irish_language&action=edit§ion=33 "Edit section: See also")] +--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +- *[Béarlachas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%A9arlachas "Béarlachas")*, Anglicisms in Irish +- *[Buntús Cainte](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bunt%C3%BAs_Cainte "Buntús Cainte")*, a course in basic spoken Irish +- [Comparison of Scottish Gaelic and Irish](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_Scottish_Gaelic_and_Irish "Comparison of Scottish Gaelic and Irish") +- *[Cumann Gaelach](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumann_Gaelach "Cumann Gaelach")*, Irish language Society +- [Dictionary of the Irish Language](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictionary_of_the_Irish_Language "Dictionary of the Irish Language") +- [Fáinne](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%A1inne "Fáinne"), a lapel pin for Irish speakers +- [Goidelic substrate hypothesis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goidelic_substrate_hypothesis "Goidelic substrate hypothesis") +- [Hiberno-Latin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiberno-Latin "Hiberno-Latin"), a variety of [Medieval Latin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_Latin "Medieval Latin") used in Irish monasteries. It included Greek, Hebrew and Celtic neologisms. +- [Irish language outside Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language_outside_Ireland "Irish language outside Ireland") +- [Irish name](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_name "Irish name") and [Place names in Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Place_names_in_Ireland "Place names in Ireland") +- [Irish words used in the English language](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_words_used_in_the_English_language "Irish words used in the English language") +- [Irish](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_(Junior_Cert) "Irish (Junior Cert)"), a subject of the Junior Cycle examination in Secondary schools in Ireland +- [List of artists who have released Irish-language songs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_artists_who_have_released_Irish-language_songs "List of artists who have released Irish-language songs") +- [List of English words of Irish origin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_English_words_of_Irish_origin "List of English words of Irish origin") +- [List of Ireland-related topics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Ireland-related_topics "List of Ireland-related topics") +- [List of Irish-language given names](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Irish-language_given_names "List of Irish-language given names") +- [List of Irish-language media](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Irish-language_media "List of Irish-language media") +- [Modern literature in Irish](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_literature_in_Irish "Modern literature in Irish") +- [Status of the Irish language](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Status_of_the_Irish_language "Status of the Irish language"), a detailed account of the current state of the language. +- *[Teastas Eorpach na Gaeilge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teastas_Eorpach_na_Gaeilge "Teastas Eorpach na Gaeilge")* + +Notes[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Irish_language&action=edit§ion=34 "Edit section: Notes")] +--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +1. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-2 "Jump up")** Irish was the first official language of the Irish state.^[[1]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_note-constitution-1)^ Irish is not widely used as an [L2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_language "Second language") in most of [Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland "Republic of Ireland"), but its use is encouraged by the government. + +References[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Irish_language&action=edit§ion=35 "Edit section: References")] +------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +### Citations[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Irish_language&action=edit§ion=36 "Edit section: Citations")] + +1. ^ [Jump up to:^***a***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-constitution_1-0) [^***b***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-constitution_1-1) *["Constitution of Ireland"](http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20090717092821/http://www.taoiseach.gov.ie/attached_files/html%20files/Constitution%20of%20Ireland%20%28Eng%29.htm). [Government of Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_of_Ireland "Government of Ireland"). 1 July 1937. Archived from [the original](http://www.taoiseach.gov.ie/attached_files/html%20files/Constitution%20of%20Ireland%20(Eng).htm) on 17 July 2009. Retrieved 19 June 2007.* +2. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-3 "Jump up")** *Ainsworth, Paul (6 December 2022). ["'Historic milestone' passed as Irish language legislation becomes law"](https://www.irishnews.com/news/2022/12/06/news/_historic_milestone_passed_as_irish_language_legislation_becomes_law-2932333/). *The Irish News*. Retrieved 7 December 2022.* +3. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-FnG_212_4-0 "Jump up")** *["Our Role Supporting You"](https://www.forasnagaeilge.ie/about/supporting-you/?lang=en). *Foras na Gaeilge*. Retrieved 8 January 2021. ...  between Foras na Gaeilge and Bòrd na Gàidhlig, promoting the use of Irish Gaelic and Scottish Gaelic in Ireland and Scotland ...'* +4. ^ [Jump up to:^***a***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-OG_18772_5-0) [^***b***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-OG_18772_5-1) *O'Gallagher, J. (1877). *Sermons in Irish-Gaelic*. Gill.* +5. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-6 "Jump up")** *Ó Flannghaile, Tomás (1896). *For the Tongue of the Gael: a Selection of Essays and Philological on Irish-Gaelic Subjects*. Gill.* +6. ^ [Jump up to:^***a***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-auto1_7-0) [^***b***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-auto1_7-1) [^***c***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-auto1_7-2) *["Gaelic definition and meaning"](https://www.collinsdictionary.com/us/dictionary/english/gaelic). *Collins English Dictionary*.* +7. ^ [Jump up to:^***a***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-Cambridge_University_Press_8-0) [^***b***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-Cambridge_University_Press_8-1) [^***c***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-Cambridge_University_Press_8-2) *["Gaelic"](https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/gaelic?q=Gaelic). *Cambridge English Dictionary*. [Cambridge University Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press "Cambridge University Press"). Retrieved 22 December 2018.* +8. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-9 "Jump up")** *["Irish language"](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Irish-language). *Britannica*. 2021.* +9. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-FnG_21_10-0 "Jump up")** *["Our Role Supporting You"](https://www.forasnagaeilge.ie/about/supporting-you/?lang=en). *Foras na Gaeilge*. Retrieved 8 January 2021. ...  between Foras na Gaeilge and Bòrd na Gàidhlig, promoting the use of Irish Gaelic and Scottish Gaelic in Ireland and Scotland ...'* +10. ^ [Jump up to:^***a***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-:0_11-0) [^***b***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-:0_11-1) *["Gaelic: Definition of Gaelic by Merriam-Webster"](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Gaelic). *Merriam-Webster.com*. Merriam-Webster, Incorporated.* +11. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-12 "Jump up")** *[""Reawakening the Irish Language through the Irish Education System: Challenges and Priorities""](https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1085869.pdf) (PDF). International Electronic Journal of Elementary Education.* +12. ^ [Jump up to:^***a***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-ROI_census_2023_13-0) [^***b***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-ROI_census_2023_13-1) [^***c***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-ROI_census_2023_13-2) *["Irish Language and the Gaeltacht -- CSO -- Central Statistics Office"](https://www.cso.ie/en/releasesandpublications/ep/p-cpp8/census2022profile8-theirishlanguageandeducation/irishlanguageandthegaeltacht/). *www.cso.ie*. 19 December 2023. Retrieved 17 February 2024.* +13. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-14 "Jump up")** *["Frequency of Speaking Irish"](https://www.nisra.gov.uk/system/files/statistics/census-2021-ms-b07.xlsx). *nisra.gov.uk*. 21 March 2023.* +14. ^ [Jump up to:^***a***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-USA_15-0) [^***b***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-USA_15-1) *["1. Detailed Languages Spoken at Home and Ability to Speak English for the Population 5 Years and Over for the United States: 2006--2008"](https://www.census.gov/hhes/socdemo/language/), *Language* (table), Census, 2010* +15. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-16 "Jump up")** *Doyle, Danny (2015). *Míle Míle i gCéin: The Irish Language in Canada*. Ottawa: Borealis Press. p. 196. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-88887-631-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88887-631-7 "Special:BookSources/978-0-88887-631-7").* +16. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-17 "Jump up")** *[Dinneen, Patrick S.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrick_S._Dinneen "Patrick S. Dinneen") (1927). *Foclóir Gaedhilge agus Béarla* [*Irish and English dictionary*] (in Irish) (2d ed.). Dublin: Irish Texts Society. pp. 507 s.v. *Gaedhealg*. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [1-870166-00-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-870166-00-0 "Special:BookSources/1-870166-00-0").* +17. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-18 "Jump up")** *Doyle, Aidan; [Gussmann, Edmund](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Gussmann "Edmund Gussmann") (2005). *An Ghaeilge, Podręcznik Języka Irlandzkiego*. Redakcja Wydawnictw Katolickiego Uniwersytetu Lubelskiego. pp. 423k. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [83-7363-275-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/83-7363-275-1 "Special:BookSources/83-7363-275-1").* +18. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-19 "Jump up")** *[Dillon, Myles](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myles_Dillon "Myles Dillon"); [Ó Cróinín, Donncha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donncha_%C3%93_Cr%C3%B3in%C3%ADn "Donncha Ó Cróinín") (1961). [*Teach Yourself Irish*](https://archive.org/details/TeachYourselfIrish). London: [English Universities Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=English_Universities_Press&action=edit&redlink=1 "English Universities Press (page does not exist)"). p. 227.* +19. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-20 "Jump up")** *Ó Dónaill, Niall, ed. (1977). *Foclóir Gaeilge--Béarla*. p. 600 s.v. *Gaeilge*.* +20. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-21 "Jump up")** *["Ireland speaks up loudly for Gaelic"](https://www.nytimes.com/2005/03/28/world/europe/28iht-irish.html). *The New York Times*. 29 March 2005. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20140108141042/http://www.nytimes.com/2005/03/28/world/europe/28iht-irish.html) from the original on 8 January 2014. Retrieved 19 February 2017.* An example of the use of the word "Gaelic" to describe the language, seen throughout the text of the article. +21. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-22 "Jump up")** *["Irish: Ethnologue"](https://www.ethnologue.com/language/gle). *Ethnologue*. Retrieved 22 December 2018. Alternate names: Erse, Gaelic Irish, Irish Gaelic* +22. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-23 "Jump up")** *Dalton, Martha (July 2019). "Nuclear Accents in Four Irish (Gaelic) Dialects". *International Conference of Phonetic Science*. **XVI**. [CiteSeerX](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier) "CiteSeerX (identifier)") [10.1.1.486.4615](https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.486.4615).* +23. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-:1_24-0 "Jump up")** *["Interinstitutional Style Guide: Section 7.2.4. Rules governing the languages of the institutions"](http://publications.europa.eu/code/en/en-370204.htm). [European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union "European Union"). 27 April 2016.* +24. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-25 "Jump up")** *["Gaelic"](https://www.thefreedictionary.com/Gaelic). *The Free Dictionary*.* +25. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-Erse_cite_26-0 "Jump up")** *"House of Commons, 1 August 1922: Ireland: Erse language (18)". *Hansard*. **157**. London, UK: [Houses of Parliament](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houses_of_Parliament "Houses of Parliament"). 1240--1242. 1 August 1922. Sir CHARLES OMAN asked the Secretary of State for the Colonies whether he has protested against the recent attempt of the Provisional Government in Ireland to force compulsory Erse into all official correspondence, in spite of the agreement that Erse and English should be equally permissible .. MR CHURCHILL .. I do not anticipate that Irish Ministers will willingly incur the very great confusion which would inevitably result from the use of Irish for the material parts of their correspondence.* +26. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-27 "Jump up")** *Irving, Jenni. ["Ogham"](https://www.worldhistory.org/Ogham/). *World History Encyclopedia*. Retrieved 27 March 2024.* +27. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-28 "Jump up")** *De Fréine, Seán (1978). [*The Great Silence: The Study of a Relationship Between Language and Nationality*](https://books.google.com/books?id=w2NiAAAAMAAJ). Irish Books & Media. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-85342-516-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85342-516-8 "Special:BookSources/978-0-85342-516-8").* +28. ^ [Jump up to:^***a***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-%C3%93_Gr%C3%A1da_29-0) [^***b***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-%C3%93_Gr%C3%A1da_29-1) Ó Gráda 2013. +29. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-30 "Jump up")** *O'Reilly, Edward (17 March 2015). [""The unadulterated Irish language": Irish Speakers in Nineteenth Century New York"](http://blog.nyhistory.org/the-unadulterated-irish-language-irish-speakers-in-nineteenth-century-new-york/). *[New-York Historical Society](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New-York_Historical_Society "New-York Historical Society")*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170729225257/http://blog.nyhistory.org/the-unadulterated-irish-language-irish-speakers-in-nineteenth-century-new-york/) from the original on 29 July 2017. Retrieved 29 July 2017.* +30. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-31 "Jump up")** See the discussion in *Wolf, Nicholas M. (2014). [*An Irish-Speaking Island: State, Religion, Community, and the Linguistic Landscape in Ireland, 1770--1870*](https://books.google.com/books?id=l37VBQAAQBAJ). University of Wisconsin Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-299-30274-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-299-30274-0 "Special:BookSources/978-0-299-30274-0").* +31. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-32 "Jump up")** McMahon 2008, pp. 130--131. +32. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-33 "Jump up")** *["The Irish language and the Church of Ireland"](https://www.ireland.anglican.org/our-faith/apck/the-irish-language-and-the-church-of-ireland). *[Church of Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_Ireland "Church of Ireland")*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170710061104/https://www.ireland.anglican.org/our-faith/apck/the-irish-language-and-the-church-of-ireland) from the original on 10 July 2017. Retrieved 29 July 2017.* +33. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-34 "Jump up")** *Watson, Iarfhlaith; Nic Ghiolla Phádraig, Máire (September 2009). ["Is there an educational advantage to speaking Irish? An investigation of the relationship between education and ability to speak Irish"](https://researchrepository.ucd.ie/handle/10197/5649). *[International Journal of the Sociology of Language](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Journal_of_the_Sociology_of_Language "International Journal of the Sociology of Language")*. **2009** (199): 143--156. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"):[10.1515/IJSL.2009.039](https://doi.org/10.1515%2FIJSL.2009.039). [hdl](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hdl_(identifier) "Hdl (identifier)"):[10197/5649](https://hdl.handle.net/10197%2F5649). [S2CID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier) "S2CID (identifier)") [144222872](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144222872).* +34. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-35 "Jump up")** *["Ireland speaks up loudly for Gaelic"](https://www.nytimes.com/2005/03/28/world/europe/28iht-irish.html). *[The New York Times](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")*. 29 March 2005. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20140108141042/http://www.nytimes.com/2005/03/28/world/europe/28iht-irish.html) from the original on 8 January 2014. Retrieved 19 February 2017.* +35. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-36 "Jump up")** *Murphy, Brian (25 January 2018). ["Douglas Hyde's inauguration -- a signal of a new Ireland"](https://www.rte.ie/eile/brainstorm/2018/0621/972102-douglas-hydes-inauguration-new-ireland/). *[RTÉ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RT%C3%89 "RTÉ")*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20180907032427/https://www.rte.ie/eile/brainstorm/2018/0621/972102-douglas-hydes-inauguration-new-ireland/) from the original on 7 September 2018. Retrieved 6 September 2018.* +36. ^ [Jump up to:^***a***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-auto_37-0) [^***b***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-auto_37-1) *["Douglas Hyde Opens 2RN 1 January 1926"](https://www.rte.ie/archives/exhibitions/681-history-of-rte/682-rte-1920s/289997-first-radio-broadcast-from-2rn-1-january-1926/). *[RTÉ News](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RT%C3%89_News "RTÉ News")*. 15 February 2012. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20130106173216/http://www.rte.ie/archives/exhibitions/681-history-of-rte/682-rte-1920s/289997-first-radio-broadcast-from-2rn-1-january-1926/) from the original on 6 January 2013. Retrieved 8 May 2013.* +37. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-38 "Jump up")** *["Allocution en irlandais, par M. Douglas Hyde"](https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k129076t.r=). *[Bibliothèque nationale de France](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biblioth%C3%A8que_nationale_de_France "Bibliothèque nationale de France")*. 28 January 1922. Retrieved 6 September 2018.* +38. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-39 "Jump up")** *["The Doegen Records Web Project"](https://doegen.ie/taxonomy/term/21756). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20180907032255/https://doegen.ie/taxonomy/term/21756) from the original on 7 September 2018.* +39. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-40 "Jump up")** *["Census of Population 2016 -- Profile 10 Education, Skills and the Irish Language -- CSO -- Central Statistics Office"](http://www.cso.ie/en/releasesandpublications/ep/p-cp10esil/p10esil/). 23 November 2017. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20180212083359/http://www.cso.ie/en/releasesandpublications/ep/p-cp10esil/p10esil/) from the original on 12 February 2018. Retrieved 11 February 2018.* +40. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-41 "Jump up")** *Ó Murchú, Máirtín (1993). "Aspects of the societal status of Modern Irish". In Ball, Martin J.; Fife, James (eds.). *The Celtic Languages*. London: Routledge. pp. 471--90. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [0-415-01035-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-01035-7 "Special:BookSources/0-415-01035-7").* +41. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-42 "Jump up")** *["NUI Entry Requirements -- Ollscoil na hÉireann -- National University of Ireland"](http://www.nui.ie/college/entry-requirements.asp). Nui.ie. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20120705142738/http://www.nui.ie/college/entry-requirements.asp) from the original on 5 July 2012. Retrieved 7 July 2012.* +42. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-43 "Jump up")** *["Obligation to appoint Irish speakers"](https://web.archive.org/web/20051130121122/http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/ZZA35Y1929S3.html). Archived from [the original](http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/ZZA35Y1929S3.html) on 30 November 2005.* +43. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-44 "Jump up")** *["Academic claims the forced learning of Irish 'has failed'"](http://www.independent.ie/national-news/academic-claims-the-forced-learning-of-irish-has-failed-118356.html). *Independent.ie*. 19 January 2006.* +44. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-45 "Jump up")** *Regan, Mary (4 May 2010). ["End compulsory Irish, says FG, as 14,000 drop subject"](https://www.irishexaminer.com/ireland/education/end-compulsory-irish-says-fg-as-14000-drop-subject-118897.html). *Irish Examiner*.* +45. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-46 "Jump up")** Donncha Ó hÉallaithe: "Litir oscailte chuig Enda Kenny": [BEO.ie](http://www.beo.ie/alt-litir-oscailte-chuig-enda-kenny-td.aspx) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20110120013022/http://www.beo.ie/alt-litir-oscailte-chuig-enda-kenny-td.aspx) 20 January 2011 at the [Wayback Machine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine "Wayback Machine") +46. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-47 "Jump up")** *Siggins, Lorna (16 July 2007). ["Study sees decline of Irish in Gaeltacht"](https://www.irishtimes.com/news/study-sees-decline-of-irish-in-gaeltacht-1.949907). *The Irish Times*.* +47. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-48 "Jump up")** Nollaig Ó Gadhra, 'The Gaeltacht and the Future of Irish, *Studies*, Volume 90, Number 360 +48. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-49 "Jump up")** Welsh Robert and Stewart, Bruce (1996). 'Gaeltacht,' *The Oxford Companion to Irish Literature*. Oxford University Press. +49. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-50 "Jump up")** Hindley, Reg (1991). *The Death of the Irish Language: A Qualified Obituary*. Taylor & Francis. +50. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-51 "Jump up")** *Magan, Manchán (9 January 2007). ["Cá Bhfuil Na Gaeilg eoirí? *"](https://www.theguardian.com/travel/2007/jan/05/ireland.features). *[The Guardian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian "The Guardian")*. London. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170129063301/https://www.theguardian.com/travel/2007/jan/05/ireland.features) from the original on 29 January 2017. Retrieved 17 December 2016.* +51. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-52 "Jump up")** *["Why choose Irish-medium education? | Gaeloideachas"](https://gaeloideachas.ie/why-choose-an-irish-medium-school/). *gaeloideachas.ie*. Retrieved 15 December 2023.* +52. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-53 "Jump up")** See the discussion and the conclusions reached in 'Language and Occupational Status: Linguistic Elitism in the Irish Labour Market,' The Economic and Social Review, Vol. 40, No. 4, Winter, 2009, pp. 435--460: [Ideas.repec.org](https://ideas.repec.org/a/eso/journl/v40y2009i4p435-460.html) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20150329152128/https://ideas.repec.org/a/eso/journl/v40y2009i4p435-460.html) 29 March 2015 at the [Wayback Machine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine "Wayback Machine") +53. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-54 "Jump up")** *["Over 2.3m people using language app to learn Irish"](https://www.rte.ie/lifestyle/living/2016/1125/834370-duolingo-language-learning-app-irish/). *[RTE](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RTE "RTE")*. 25 November 2016. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170904153245/https://www.rte.ie/lifestyle/living/2016/1125/834370-duolingo-language-learning-app-irish/) from the original on 4 September 2017. Retrieved 23 September 2017.* +54. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-55 "Jump up")** *["Ar fheabhas! President praises volunteer Duolingo translators"](https://www.irishtimes.com/news/ireland/irish-news/ar-fheabhas-president-praises-volunteer-duolingo-translators-1.2882374). *[The Irish Times](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Irish_Times "The Irish Times")*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20171011123725/http://www.irishtimes.com/news/ireland/irish-news/ar-fheabhas-president-praises-volunteer-duolingo-translators-1.2882374) from the original on 11 October 2017. Retrieved 23 September 2017.* +55. ^ [Jump up to:^***a***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-Siggins_5_56-0) [^***b***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-Siggins_5_56-1) *Siggins, Lorna (6 January 2003). "Only 25% of Gaeltacht households fluent in Irish -- survey". *[The Irish Times](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Irish_Times "The Irish Times")*. p. 5.* +56. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-57 "Jump up")** Hindley 1991, Map 7: Irish speakers by towns and distinct electoral divisions, census 1926. +57. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-58 "Jump up")** *["The Gaeltacht | Our Language & the Ghaeltacht"](https://udaras.ie/en/our-language-the-gaeltacht/the-gaeltacht/). *Údarás na Gaeltachta*. Retrieved 15 December 2023.* +58. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-59 "Jump up")** *["Gaeltacht Affairs"](https://www.gov.ie/en/policy-information/2061c-gaeltacht-affairs/). *www.gov.ie*. 5 October 2020. Retrieved 15 December 2023.* +59. ^ [Jump up to:^***a***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-:12_60-0) [^***b***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-:12_60-1) *Trinity College Dublin (5 November 2020). ["Official Languages Act 2003"](https://www.tcd.ie/gaeloifig/en/acht-na-dteangacha-oifigiula/#:~:text=The%20aim%20of%20the%20Official,in%20public%20affairs%20in%20Ireland.).* +60. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-61 "Jump up")** *["Official Languages Act 2003"](https://www.gov.ie/en/publication/6bdcf-official-languages-act-2003/). *www.gov.ie*. 22 July 2020. Retrieved 10 December 2020.* +61. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-62 "Jump up")** *An Coimisinéir Teanga. [*Official Languages Act 2003: Guidebook*](https://www.tcd.ie/gaeloifig/assets/foilseachain/Guidebook%20-%20Official%20Languages%20Act%202003.pdf) (PDF). pp. 1--3.* +62. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-63 "Jump up")** *["Official Languages Act 2003 (and related legislation)"](https://www.gov.ie/en/publication/4d92d-official-languages-act-2003-and-related-legislation/). *www.gov.ie*. 31 August 2020. Retrieved 10 December 2020.* +63. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-64 "Jump up")** *["Review of Official Language Act 2003"](https://www.gov.ie/en/publication/28c94-review-of-official-language-act-2003/). *www.gov.ie*. 3 July 2015. Retrieved 10 December 2020.* +64. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-65 "Jump up")** *["Irish Language Policy"](https://www.gov.ie/en/publication/820415-irish-language-policy/). *www.gov.ie*. July 2019. Retrieved 10 December 2020.* +65. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-66 "Jump up")** *Roinn an Taoisigh (2019). [*Official Languages Act 2003: Language Scheme 2019--2022*](https://www.gov.ie/en/publication/820415-irish-language-policy/). p. 3.* +66. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-67 "Jump up")** *["20-Year Strategy for the Irish Language"](https://www.gov.ie/en/policy-information/2ea63-20-year-strategy-for-the-irish-language/). *www.gov.ie*. 29 September 2020. Retrieved 10 December 2020.* +67. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-:02_68-0 "Jump up")** *Government of Ireland (2010). [*20-Year Strategy for the Irish Language 2010--2030*](https://www.gov.ie/en/policy-information/2ea63-20-year-strategy-for-the-irish-language/). p. 11.* +68. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-69 "Jump up")** *Breadun, Deaglan De. ["Plan could treble number speaking Irish, says Cowen"](https://www.irishtimes.com/news/plan-could-treble-number-speaking-irish-says-cowen-1.688731). *[The Irish Times](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Irish_Times "The Irish Times")*. Retrieved 10 December 2020.* +69. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-70 "Jump up")** *["Irish Language and the Gaeltacht -- CSO -- Central Statistics Office"](https://www.cso.ie/en/releasesandpublications/ep/p-cpp8/census2022profile8-theirishlanguageandeducation/irishlanguageandthegaeltacht/). *www.cso.ie*. 19 December 2023. Retrieved 19 February 2024.* +70. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-71 "Jump up")** *["CAIN: Issues: Language: O'Reilly, C. (1997) Nationalists and the Irish Language in Northern Ireland: Competing Perspectives"](http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/issues/language/oreilly97.htm#national). Cain.ulst.ac.uk. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20151009134019/http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/issues/language/oreilly97.htm#national) from the original on 9 October 2015. Retrieved 31 October 2015.* +71. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-72 "Jump up")** *["GPPAC.net"](https://web.archive.org/web/20070513093201/http://www.gppac.net/documents/pbp_f/part1/7_changi.htm). Archived from [the original](http://www.gppac.net/documents/pbp_f/part1/7_changi.htm) on 13 May 2007.* +72. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-belfast_73-0 "Jump up")** *["Belfast Agreement -- Full text -- Section 6 (Equality) -- "Economic, Social and Cultural issues""](http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/events/peace/docs/agreement.htm#rights). Cain.ulst.ac.uk. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20131122194559/http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/events/peace/docs/agreement.htm#rights) from the original on 22 November 2013. Retrieved 7 July 2012.* +73. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-bbc13dec2006_74-0 "Jump up")** *["Irish language future is raised"](http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/northern_ireland/6177321.stm). *[BBC News](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_News "BBC News")*. 13 December 2006. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20070315193716/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/northern_ireland/6177321.stm) from the original on 15 March 2007. Retrieved 19 June 2007.* +74. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-75 "Jump up")** *Ainsworth, Paul (6 December 2022). ["'Historic milestone' passed as Irish language legislation becomes law"](https://www.irishnews.com/news/2022/12/06/news/_historic_milestone_passed_as_irish_language_legislation_becomes_law-2932333/). *The Irish News*. Retrieved 18 February 2023.* +75. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-76 "Jump up")** *["Thousands call for Irish Language Act during Belfast rally"](https://www.irishtimes.com/news/ireland/irish-news/thousands-call-for-irish-language-act-during-belfast-rally-1.3090740). *[The Irish Times](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Irish_Times "The Irish Times")*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20171115205211/https://www.irishtimes.com/news/ireland/irish-news/thousands-call-for-irish-language-act-during-belfast-rally-1.3090740) from the original on 15 November 2017. Retrieved 15 January 2018.* +76. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-77 "Jump up")** *["Is í an Ghaeilge an 21ú teanga oifigiúil den Aontas Eorpach"](https://web.archive.org/web/20080318191550/http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/translation/spotlight/irish_en.htm) [Irish is the 21st official language of the European Union] (in Irish). Archived from [the original](http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/translation/spotlight/irish_en.htm) on 18 March 2008. Retrieved 14 June 2008.* +77. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-78 "Jump up")** *Boland, Lauren (31 December 2021). ["Irish to be fully recognised as an official EU language from New Year's Day"](https://www.thejournal.ie/irish-gaeilge-eu-language-5643611-Dec2021/). *[TheJournal.ie](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TheJournal.ie "TheJournal.ie")*. Retrieved 1 January 2022.* +78. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-79 "Jump up")** *O Broin, Brian. ["An Analysis of the Irish-Speaking Communities of North America: Who are they, what are their opinions, and what are their needs?"](https://wpunj.academia.edu/Brian%C3%93Broin/Talks/61329/An_Analysis_of_the_Irish-Speaking_Communities_of_North_America_Who_are_they_what_are_their_opinions_and_what_are_their_needs). *Academia* (in Irish). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20120510104027/http://wpunj.academia.edu/Brian%C3%93Broin/Talks/61329/An_Analysis_of_the_Irish-Speaking_Communities_of_North_America_Who_are_they_what_are_their_opinions_and_what_are_their_needs) from the original on 10 May 2012. Retrieved 31 March 2012.* +79. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-80 "Jump up")** *Mannion, John (February 2003). ["The Irish in Newfoundland"](https://www.heritage.nf.ca/articles/society/irish-newfoundland.php). *Heritage: Newfoundland & Labrador*.* +80. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-81 "Jump up")** *Clarke, Sandra; Paddock, Harold; MacKenzie, Marguerite (1999). ["Language"](https://www.heritage.nf.ca/articles/society/language.php). *Heritage: Newfoundland and Labrador*.* +81. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-Cens_16_Irish_82-0 "Jump up")** *"7. Irish". *Report of the 2016 Census of Ireland*. Dublin, Ireland: Central Statistics Office. 2017. pp. 66, 69. Of the 1.76 million who said they could speak Irish, 73,803 said they speak it daily outside the education system, a fall of 3,382 on the 2011 figure. ... (421,274) said they never spoke Irish. ... Of the 73,803 daily Irish speakers (outside the education system), 20,586 (27.9%) lived in Gaeltacht areas. The total population of all Gaeltacht areas in April 2016 was 96,090* +82. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-83 "Jump up")** *["Census 2016 Summary Results -- Part 1 -- CSO -- Central Statistics Office"](http://www.cso.ie/en/csolatestnews/presspages/2017/census2016summaryresults-part1/). *Cso.ie*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170730013846/http://www.cso.ie/en/csolatestnews/presspages/2017/census2016summaryresults-part1/) from the original on 30 July 2017. Retrieved 29 July 2017.* +83. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-84 "Jump up")** *["Department of Tourism, Culture, Arts, Gaeltacht, Sport and Media"](https://www.gov.ie/en/organisation/department-of-tourism-culture-arts-gaeltacht-sport-and-media/?referrer=http://www.chg.gov.ie/app/uploads/2018/07/report-of-coimisiun-na-gaeltachta.pdf) (PDF). *www.gov.ie*.* +84. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-85 "Jump up")** *["The Doegen Records Web Project"](https://doegen.ie/taxonomy/term/21984). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20180908015716/https://doegen.ie/taxonomy/term/21984) from the original on 8 September 2018.* +85. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-86 "Jump up")** *Hamilton, John Noel (1974). *A Phonetic Study of the Irish of Tory Island, County Donegal*. Institute of Irish Studies, The Queen's University of Belfast.* +86. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-87 "Jump up")** *Lucas, Leslie W. (1979). *Grammar of Ros Goill Irish, County Donegal*. Institute of Irish Studies, The Queen's University of Belfast.* +87. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-88 "Jump up")** Williams 1994, pp. 467--478. +88. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-89 "Jump up")** *Borde, Andrew (1870). Furnivall, F.J. (ed.). ["*The Fyrst Boke of the Introduction of Knowledge*"](https://archive.org/stream/fyrstbokeintrod01boorgoog#page/n140/mode/2up). N. Trubner & Co. pp. 131--135.* +89. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-90 "Jump up")** "State of Ireland & Plan for its Reformation" in *State Papers Ireland*, Henry VIII, ii, 8. +90. ^ [Jump up to:^***a***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-Fitzgerald_91-0) [^***b***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-Fitzgerald_91-1) [^***c***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-Fitzgerald_91-2) See Fitzgerald 1984. +91. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-92 "Jump up")** *["The Irish Language in Co. Wicklow"](https://heritage.wicklowheritage.org/places/county_wicklow_historical_societies/wicklow_historical_society/wicklow_historical_society-2/the_irish_language_in_co_wicklow). 27 June 2019.* +92. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-93 "Jump up")** Cited in Ó Gráda 2013. +93. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-94 "Jump up")** *["The Doegen Records Web Project | DHO"](http://www.doegen.ie/). Dho.ie. 5 September 1928. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20160319210106/http://www.doegen.ie/) from the original on 19 March 2016. Retrieved 19 March 2016.* +94. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-95 "Jump up")** *["Cur síos ar an chainteoir ó dhúchas deireannach ón Ó Méith, Co Lú, Anna Uí AnnluainCur síos ar an chainteoir ó dhúchas deireannach ón Ó Méith, Co Lú, Anna Uí Annluain"](https://www.rte.ie/archives/exhibitions/1981-proinsias-o-conluain/615547-gaeilgeoir-deireannacha-mith/). RTÉ Archives. Retrieved 22 October 2022.* +95. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-96 "Jump up")** See "Tony Crowley, "The Politics of Language in Ireland 1366--1922: A Sourcebook" and [Leerssen, Joep](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joep_Leerssen "Joep Leerssen"), *Mere Irish and Fior-Ghael: Studies in the Idea of Irish Nationality, Its Development and Literary Expression Prior to the Nineteenth Century*, University of Notre Dame Press 1997, p. 51. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0268014278](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0268014278 "Special:BookSources/978-0268014278") +96. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-97 "Jump up")** Ellis, Henry (ed.). [*The Description of Ireland*](http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.03.0089), An Electronic Edition: Chapter 1 (The Names of Ireland, with the Compasse of the Same, also what Shires or Counties it Conteineth, the Diuision or Partition of the Land, and of the Language of the People) +97. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-98 "Jump up")** See Ó hÓgáin 2011. +98. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-99 "Jump up")** Berresford Ellis, Peter (1975). *Hell or Connnaught! The Cromwellian Colonisation of Ireland 1652--1660*, p. 156. Hamish Hamilton. SBN 241-89071-3. +99. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-100 "Jump up")** Berresford Ellis 1975, p. 193. +100. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-101 "Jump up")** Berresford Ellis 1975, p. 190. +101. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-102 "Jump up")** Williams & Uí Mhuiríosa 1979, pp. 279 and 284. +102. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-103 "Jump up")** Ní Mhunghaile 2010, pp. 239--276. +103. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-104 "Jump up")** See Fitzgerald, 1984. +104. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-105 "Jump up")** McCabe, p.31 +105. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-106 "Jump up")** Quoted in Graham Kew (ed.), *The Irish Sections of Fynes Moryson's unpublished itinerary* (IMC, Dublin, 1998), p. 50. +106. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-107 "Jump up")** Quoted in [Hardiman, James](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hardiman "James Hardiman"), [*The History of the Town and Country of the County of Galway*](https://books.google.com/books?id=Lv8HAAAAQAAJ). Dublin 1820: p. 80. +107. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-108 "Jump up")** Ó Laoire 2007, p. 164. +108. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-109 "Jump up")** Quoted in de Brún 2009, pp. 11--12. +109. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-110 "Jump up")** Fitzgerald, Garrett, 'Estimates for baronies of minimal level of Irish-speaking amongst successive decennial cohorts, 117-1781 to 1861--1871,' Volume 84, *Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy* 1984 +110. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-111 "Jump up")** Ó Conluain & Ó Céileachair 1976, pp. 148--153, 163--169, 210--215. +111. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-112 "Jump up")** Máirín Ní Mhuiríosa, "Cumann na Scríbhneoirí: Memoir" in *Scríobh 5*, pp. 168--181, Seán Ó Mórdha (ed.), An Clóchomhar Tta 1981. +112. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-113 "Jump up")** *["Dublin : Gaelscoileanna -- Irish Medium Education"](http://www.gaelscoileanna.ie/en/category/schools/primary/dublin-bunscoil/). Retrieved 8 April 2020.* +113. ^ [Jump up to:^***a***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-schism_114-0) [^***b***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-schism_114-1) [^***c***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-schism_114-2) *Ó Broin, Brian (16 January 2010). ["Schism fears for Gaeilgeoirí"](https://www.irishtimes.com/life-and-style/people/schism-fears-for-gaeilgeoir%C3%AD-1.1269494). *[The Irish Times](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Irish_Times "The Irish Times")*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20180216211616/https://www.irishtimes.com/life-and-style/people/schism-fears-for-gaeilgeoir%C3%AD-1.1269494) from the original on 16 February 2018. Retrieved 16 February 2018.* +114. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-115 "Jump up")** *Walsh, John; OʼRourke, Bernadette; Rowland, Hugh (October 2015). [Research Report on New Speakers of Irish](https://www.forasnagaeilge.ie/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/New-speakers-of-Irish-report.pdf) (PDF) (Report). Foras na Gaeilge. Retrieved 8 June 2023.* +115. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-Seoighe_116-0 "Jump up")** *Seoighe, Stiofán (22 July 2019). ["Gá le doirse a oscailt do nuachainteoirí na Gaeilge: Cén chaoi gur féidir cainteoirí gníomhacha, féinmhuiníneacha a dhéanamh astu seo a fhoghlaimíonn an Ghaeilge ar scoil?"](https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/tuarasc%C3%A1il/g%C3%A1-le-doirse-a-oscailt-do-nuachainteoir%C3%AD-na-gaeilge-1.3945939) [Need to open doors for new speakers of Irish: How can active, self-confident speakers be made from those who learn Irish at school?]. *[The Irish Times](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Irish_Times "The Irish Times")* (in Irish). Retrieved 19 August 2019.* +116. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-117 "Jump up")** *Nic Fhlannchadha, S.; Hickey, T.M. (12 January 2016). "Minority Language Ownership and Authority: Perspectives of Native Speakers and New Speakers". *International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism*. **21** (1): 38--53. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"):[10.1080/13670050.2015.1127888](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13670050.2015.1127888). [hdl](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hdl_(identifier) "Hdl (identifier)"):[10197/7394](https://hdl.handle.net/10197%2F7394). [S2CID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier) "S2CID (identifier)") [67833553](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:67833553).* +117. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-Nic_Mhuiris_118-0 "Jump up")** *Ní Thuathaláin, Méabh (23 July 2019). ["'I'm gonna speak Irish the way that's natural for me' -- craoltóir buartha faoi éilíteachas shaol na Gaeilge"](https://web.archive.org/web/20190904185629/https://tuairisc.ie/). *Tuairisc.ie*. Archived from the original on 4 September 2019. Retrieved 19 August 2019.* +118. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-119 "Jump up")** *["Leabharlann Teanga agus Foclóireachta"](https://www.teanglann.ie/ga/). *www.teanglann.ie*. Retrieved 8 April 2020.* +119. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-120 "Jump up")** *["Irish Dialects copy of Irishlanguage.net"](https://web.archive.org/web/20160701154842/http://www.irishlanguage.net/irish/dialects.asp). Archived from [the original](http://www.irishlanguage.net/irish/dialects.asp) on 1 July 2016. Retrieved 31 October 2015.* +120. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-blas_121-0 "Jump up")** *["Beginners' Blas"](https://www.bbc.co.uk/northernireland/irish/blas/education/beginnersblas/dictionaries.shtml). [BBC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC "BBC"). June 2005. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20090303083711/http://www.bbc.co.uk/northernireland/irish/blas/education/beginnersblas/dictionaries.shtml) from the original on 3 March 2009. Retrieved 18 March 2011.* +121. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-122 "Jump up")** *["An Caighdeán Oifigiúil"](http://www.oireachtas.ie/parliament/media/translators/An-Caighde%C3%A1n-Oifigi%C3%BAil-2017.pdf) [The Official Standard] (PDF) (in Irish). January 2012. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20180425182331/http://www.oireachtas.ie/parliament/media/translators/An-Caighde%C3%A1n-Oifigi%C3%BAil-2017.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 25 April 2018. Retrieved 26 February 2018.* +122. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-123 "Jump up")** *["III the morphonology of Irish"](https://www.degruyter.com/view/book/9783110226607/10.1515/9783110226607.235.xml). *The Sound Structure of Modern Irish*. De Gruyter Mouton. 11 April 2014. pp. 235--316. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"):[10.1515/9783110226607.235](https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783110226607.235). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-3-11-022660-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-022660-7 "Special:BookSources/978-3-11-022660-7").* +123. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-124 "Jump up")** *["Celtic languages -- Irish | Britannica"](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Celtic-languages/Irish). *www.britannica.com*.* +124. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-125 "Jump up")** *[*Graiméar Gaeilge na mBráithre Críostai*](https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/46449130). L. A. Ó hAnluain, Christian Brothers (Eagrán nua ed.). Baile Átha Cliath: An Gúm. 1999. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [1-85791-327-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85791-327-2 "Special:BookSources/1-85791-327-2"). [OCLC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier) "OCLC (identifier)") [46449130](https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/46449130).* +125. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-126 "Jump up")** *["Irish Orthography"](http://www.nualeargais.ie/gnag/ortho.htm). *www.nualeargais.ie*. Retrieved 23 October 2022.* +126. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-127 "Jump up")** *["Irish 'fada' to get legal protection -- and must appear in all State IT systems and computer keyboards"](https://www.independent.ie/irish-news/politics/irish-fadato-get-legal-protection-and-must-appear-in-all-state-it-systems-and-computer-keyboards-40631034.html). *independent*. 8 July 2021. Retrieved 31 December 2022.* +127. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-128 "Jump up")** *Doyle, Aidan; [Gussmann, Edmund](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Gussmann "Edmund Gussmann") (2005). *An Ghaeilge, Podręcznik Języka Irlandzkiego*. Redakcja Wydawnictw Katolickiego Uniwersytetu Lubelskiego. p. 417. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [83-7363-275-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/83-7363-275-1 "Special:BookSources/83-7363-275-1").* +128. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-129 "Jump up")** *Doyle, Aidan; [Gussmann, Edmund](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Gussmann "Edmund Gussmann") (2005). *An Ghaeilge, Podręcznik Języka Irlandzkiego*. Redakcja Wydawnictw Katolickiego Uniwersytetu Lubelskiego. p. 412. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [83-7363-275-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/83-7363-275-1 "Special:BookSources/83-7363-275-1").* +129. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-130 "Jump up")** *Doyle, Aidan; [Gussmann, Edmund](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Gussmann "Edmund Gussmann") (2005). *An Ghaeilge, Podręcznik Języka Irlandzkiego*. Redakcja Wydawnictw Katolickiego Uniwersytetu Lubelskiego. p. 432. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [83-7363-275-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/83-7363-275-1 "Special:BookSources/83-7363-275-1").* +130. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-131 "Jump up")** *["Universal Declaration of Human Rights"](https://www.ohchr.org/EN/UDHR/Pages/Language.aspx?LangID=gli1). [Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_of_the_United_Nations_High_Commissioner_for_Human_Rights "Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights").* +131. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language#cite_ref-132 "Jump up")** *["Universal Declaration of Human Rights"](https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights). [United Nations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations "United Nations").* + +### Bibliography[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Irish_language&action=edit§ion=37 "Edit section: Bibliography")] + +- McCabe, Richard A.. *Spenser's Monstrous Regiment: Elizabethan Ireland and the Poetics of Difference*. [Oxford University Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Press "Oxford University Press") 2002. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [0-19-818734-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-818734-3 "Special:BookSources/0-19-818734-3"). +- [Hickey, Raymond](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raymond_Hickey "Raymond Hickey"). *The Dialects of Irish: Study of a Changing Landscape*. [Walter de Gruyter](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_de_Gruyter "Walter de Gruyter"), 2011. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [3110238306](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/3110238306 "Special:BookSources/3110238306"). +- [Hickey, Raymond](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raymond_Hickey "Raymond Hickey"). *The Sound Structure of Modern Irish*. [De Gruyter Mouton](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Gruyter_Mouton "De Gruyter Mouton") 2014. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-3-11-022659-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-022659-1 "Special:BookSources/978-3-11-022659-1"). +- De Brún, Pádraig. *Scriptural Instruction in the Vernacular: The Irish Society and its Teachers 1818--1827*. [Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dublin_Institute_for_Advanced_Studies "Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies") 2009. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-1-85500-212-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85500-212-8 "Special:BookSources/978-1-85500-212-8") +- [Doyle, Aidan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aidan_Doyle "Aidan Doyle"), *A History of the Irish Language: From the Norman Invasion to Independence*, Oxford, 2015. +- Fitzgerald, Garrett, 'Estimates for baronies of minimal level of Irish-speaking amongst successive decennial cohorts, 117--1781 to 1861--1871,' Volume 84, *[Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_Royal_Irish_Academy "Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy")* 1984. +- Garvin, Tom, *Preventing the Future: Why was Ireland so poor for so long?*, [Gill and MacMillan](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gill_and_MacMillan&action=edit&redlink=1 "Gill and MacMillan (page does not exist)"), 2005. +- Hindley, Reg (1991, new ed.). *The Death of the Irish Language: A Qualified Obituary*. [Routledge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routledge "Routledge"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-4150-6481-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-4150-6481-1 "Special:BookSources/978-0-4150-6481-1") +- McMahon, Timothy G.. *Grand Opportunity: The Gaelic Revival and Irish Society, 1893--1910*. [Syracuse University Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syracuse_University_Press "Syracuse University Press") 2008. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-8156-3158-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8156-3158-3 "Special:BookSources/978-0-8156-3158-3") +- Ó Gráda, Cormac. '*Cé Fada le Fán*' in *Dublin Review of Books*, Issue 34, 6 May 2013: *["CÉ FADA LE FÁN"](http://www.drb.ie/essays/c%C3%A9-fada-le-f%C3%A1n). *Drb.ie*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20171011123934/http://www.drb.ie/essays/c%C3%A9-fada-le-f%C3%A1n) from the original on 11 October 2017. Retrieved 23 September 2017.* +- Kelly, James & Mac Murchaidh, Ciarán (eds.). *Irish and English: Essays on the Linguistic and Cultural Frontier 1600--1900*. [Four Courts Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_Courts_Press "Four Courts Press") 2012. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-1846823404](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1846823404 "Special:BookSources/978-1846823404") +- Ní Mhunghaile, Lesa. 'An Eighteenth Century Irish scribe's private library: Muiris Ó Gormáin's books' in *[Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_Royal_Irish_Academy "Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy")*, Volume 110C, 2010, pp. 239--276. +- Ní Mhuiríosa, Máirín. '*Cumann na Scríbhneoirí: Memoir*' in **Scríobh 5**, ed. Seán Ó Mórdha. *Baile Átha Cliath: An Clóchomhar Tta* 1981. +- Ó hÓgáin, Dáithí. *Labhrann Laighnigh: Téacsanna agus Cainteanna ó Shean-Chúige Laighean*. Coiscéim 2011. +- Ó Laoire, Muiris. *Language Use and Language Attitudes in Ireland* in *Multilingualism in European Bilingual Contexts : Language Use and Attitudes*, ed. David Lasagabaster and Ángel Huguet. Multilingual Matters Ltd. 2007. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [1-85359-929-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85359-929-8 "Special:BookSources/1-85359-929-8") +- Shibakov, Alexey. *Irish Word Forms / Irische Wortformen*. epubli 2017. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [9783745066500](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783745066500 "Special:BookSources/9783745066500") +- Williams, J. E. Caerwyn & Ní Mhuiríosa, Máirín (ed.). **Traidisiún Liteartha na nGael**. An Clóchomhar Tta 1979. +- Williams, Nicholas. 'Na Canúintí a Theacht chun Solais' in **Stair na Gaeilge**, ed. Kim McCone and others. Maigh Nuad 1994. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [0-901519-90-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-901519-90-1 "Special:BookSources/0-901519-90-1") \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/src/data/irish-mythology.txt b/src/data/irish-mythology.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..737a1f0 --- /dev/null +++ b/src/data/irish-mythology.txt @@ -0,0 +1,316 @@ +Irish mythology + +[![A painting of four figures riding atop their horses](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Riders_of_th_Sidhe_%28big%29.jpg/220px-Riders_of_th_Sidhe_%28big%29.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Riders_of_th_Sidhe_(big).jpg) + +*Riders of the Sidhe*, a 1911 painting of the [aos sí](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aos_s%C3%AD "Aos sí") or [Otherworldly](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic_Otherworld#Irish_mythology "Celtic Otherworld") people of the mounds, by the artist [John Duncan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Duncan_(painter) "John Duncan (painter)") + +[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Cuinbattle.jpg/220px-Cuinbattle.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cuinbattle.jpg) + +*Cuchulain in Battle* by [Joseph Christian Leyendecker](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Christian_Leyendecker "Joseph Christian Leyendecker"), 1911 + +| Part of [a series](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Celtic_mythology "Category:Celtic mythology") on | +| [Celtic mythologies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic_mythology "Celtic mythology") | +| [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Hope-coventina01a.jpg/190px-Hope-coventina01a.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coventina "Coventina") | +| + +- [Religion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Celtic_religion "Ancient Celtic religion") ([Proto](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Celtic_paganism "Proto-Celtic paganism")) +- [Deities](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic_deities "Celtic deities") ([list](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Celtic_deities "List of Celtic deities")) +- [Animism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic_Animism "Celtic Animism") + + | +| + +show + +Gaelic + + | +| + +show + +Brythonic + + | +| + +show + +Literary works + + | +| + +show + +Motifs + + | +| + +show + +Festivals + + | +| + +show + +Folklore + + | +| + +- ![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png) [Category](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Celtic_mythology "Category:Celtic mythology") +- ![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Draig.svg/16px-Draig.svg.png) [Mythology portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Myths "Portal:Myths") + + | +| + +- [v](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Celtic_mythology "Template:Celtic mythology") +- [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Celtic_mythology "Template talk:Celtic mythology") +- [e](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Celtic_mythology "Special:EditPage/Template:Celtic mythology") + + | + +**Irish mythology** is the body of [myths](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myth "Myth") indigenous to the island of [Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland "Ireland"). It was originally [passed down orally](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oral_tradition "Oral tradition") in the [prehistoric era](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prehistoric_Ireland "Prehistoric Ireland"). In the [early medieval era](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Ireland_(795%E2%80%931169) "History of Ireland (795--1169)"), some myths were [transcribed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Irish_literature "Early Irish literature") by [Christian monks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_monasticism "Christian monasticism"), who heavily altered and [Christianised](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianization "Christianization") the myths. Irish mythology is the best-preserved branch of [Celtic mythology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic_mythology "Celtic mythology"). + +The myths are conventionally grouped into '[cycles](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_literary_cycles "List of literary cycles")'. The [Mythological Cycle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mythological_Cycle "Mythological Cycle") consists of tales and poems about the god-like [Tuatha Dé Danann](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuatha_D%C3%A9_Danann "Tuatha Dé Danann"), who are based on Ireland's pagan deities, and other mythical races like the [Fomorians](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fomorians "Fomorians").^[[1]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_note-1)^ Important works in the cycle are the *[Lebor Gabála Érenn](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lebor_Gab%C3%A1la_%C3%89renn "Lebor Gabála Érenn")* ("Book of Invasions"), a [legendary](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legend "Legend") history of Ireland, the *[Cath Maige Tuired](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cath_Maige_Tuired "Cath Maige Tuired")* ("Battle of Moytura"), and the *Aided Chlainne Lir* ("[Children of Lir](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Children_of_Lir "Children of Lir")"). The [Ulster Cycle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulster_Cycle "Ulster Cycle") consists of heroic legends relating to the [Ulaid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulaid "Ulaid"), the most important of which is the epic *[Táin Bó Cúailnge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%A1in_B%C3%B3_C%C3%BAailnge "Táin Bó Cúailnge")* ("Cattle Raid of Cooley").^[[2]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_note-Koch995-2)^ The [Fenian Cycle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fenian_Cycle "Fenian Cycle") focuses on the exploits of the mythical hero [Finn](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fionn_mac_Cumhaill "Fionn mac Cumhaill") and his [warrior band](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B3ryos "Kóryos") the [Fianna](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fianna "Fianna"), including the lengthy *[Acallam na Senórach](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acallam_na_Sen%C3%B3rach "Acallam na Senórach")* ("Tales of the Elders"). The [Cycles of the Kings](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cycles_of_the_Kings "Cycles of the Kings") comprises legends about historical and semi-historical kings of Ireland (such as *[Buile Shuibhne](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buile_Shuibhne "Buile Shuibhne")*, "The Madness of King Sweeny"), and tales about the origins of dynasties and peoples.^[[2]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_note-Koch995-2)^ + +There are also mythical texts that do not fit into any of the cycles; these include the *[echtrai](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Echtra "Echtra")* tales of journeys to [the Otherworld](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic_Otherworld "Celtic Otherworld") (such as *[The Voyage of Bran](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Voyage_of_Bran "The Voyage of Bran")*), and the *[Dindsenchas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dindsenchas "Dindsenchas")* ("lore of places"). Some written material has not survived, and many more myths were probably never written down. + +Figures[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Irish_mythology&action=edit§ion=1 "Edit section: Figures")] +------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +### Tuatha Dé Danann[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Irish_mythology&action=edit§ion=2 "Edit section: Tuatha Dé Danann")] + +The main supernatural beings in Irish mythology are the Tuatha Dé Danann ("the folk of the goddess Danu"), also known by the earlier name Tuath Dé ("god folk" or "tribe of the gods").^[[3]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_note-Carey_tuath_de-3)^ Early medieval Irish writers also called them the *fir dé* (god-men) and *cenéla dé* (god-kindreds), possibly to avoid calling them simply 'gods'.^[[4]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_note-:0-4)^ They are often depicted as kings, queens, bards, warriors, heroes, healers and craftsmen who have supernatural powers and are immortal. Prominent members include [The Dagda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Dagda "The Dagda") ("the great god"); [The Morrígan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Morr%C3%ADgan "The Morrígan") ("the great queen" or "phantom queen"); [Lugh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lugh "Lugh"); [Nuada](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuada_Airgetl%C3%A1m "Nuada Airgetlám"); [Aengus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aengus "Aengus"); [Brigid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brigid "Brigid"); [Manannán](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manann%C3%A1n_mac_Lir "Manannán mac Lir"); [Dian Cécht](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dian_C%C3%A9cht "Dian Cécht") the healer; and [Goibniu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goibniu "Goibniu") the smith. They are also said to control the fertility of the land; the tale *De Gabáil in t-Sída* says the first Gaels had to establish friendship with the Tuath Dé before they could raise crops and herds.^[[3]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_note-Carey_tuath_de-3)^ + +They dwell in the [Otherworld](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic_Otherworld "Celtic Otherworld") but interact with humans and the human world. Many are associated with specific places in the landscape, especially the *sídhe*: prominent ancient [burial mounds](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burial_mound "Burial mound") such as [Brú na Bóinne](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Br%C3%BA_na_B%C3%B3inne "Brú na Bóinne"), which are entrances to Otherworld realms.^[[3]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_note-Carey_tuath_de-3)^^[[5]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_note-Ohogain_tuath_de-5)^ The Tuath Dé can hide themselves with a *[féth fíada](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%A9th_f%C3%ADada "Féth fíada")* ('magic mist').^[[5]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_note-Ohogain_tuath_de-5)^ They are said to have travelled from the north of the world, but then were forced to live underground in the *sídhe* after the coming of the Irish.^[[6]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_note-:1-6)^ + +In some tales, such as *[Baile in Scáil](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baile_in_Sc%C3%A1il "Baile in Scáil")*, kings receive affirmation of their legitimacy from one of the Tuath Dé, or a king's right to rule is affirmed by an encounter with an otherworldly woman (see [sovereignty goddess](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereignty_goddess "Sovereignty goddess")).^[[3]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_note-Carey_tuath_de-3)^ The Tuath Dé can also bring doom to unrightful kings.^[[3]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_note-Carey_tuath_de-3)^ + +The medieval writers who wrote about the Tuath Dé were Christians. Sometimes they explained the Tuath Dé as [fallen angels](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fallen_angel "Fallen angel"); neutral angels who sided neither with God nor [Lucifer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucifer "Lucifer") and were punished by being forced to dwell on the Earth; or ancient humans who had become highly skilled in magic.^[[3]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_note-Carey_tuath_de-3)^ However, several writers acknowledged that at least some of them had been gods.^[[3]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_note-Carey_tuath_de-3)^ + +There is strong evidence that many of the Tuath Dé represent the gods of Irish paganism.^[[3]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_note-Carey_tuath_de-3)^^[[5]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_note-Ohogain_tuath_de-5)^ The name itself means "tribe of gods", and the ninth-century *Scél Tuain meic Cairill* (Tale of [Tuan mac Cairill](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuan_mac_Cairill "Tuan mac Cairill")) speaks of the *Tuath Dé ocus Andé*, "tribe of gods and un-gods".^[[3]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_note-Carey_tuath_de-3)^ Goibniu, [Credne](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Credne "Credne") and [Luchta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luchta "Luchta") are called the *trí dé dáno*, "three gods of craft".^[[3]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_note-Carey_tuath_de-3)^ In *[Sanas Cormaic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanas_Cormaic "Sanas Cormaic")* ([Cormac's](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cormac_mac_Cuilenn%C3%A1in "Cormac mac Cuilennáin") Glossary), [Anu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anu_(Irish_goddess) "Anu (Irish goddess)") is called "mother of the Irish gods", [Nét](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%A9t "Nét") a "god of war", and Brigid a "goddess of poets".^[[3]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_note-Carey_tuath_de-3)^ Writing in the seventh century, [Tírechán](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%ADrech%C3%A1n "Tírechán") explained the *sídh* folk as "earthly gods" (Latin *dei terreni*),^[[3]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_note-Carey_tuath_de-3)^ while *Fiacc's Hymn* says the Irish adored the *sídh* before the coming of [Saint Patrick](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Patrick "Saint Patrick").^[[3]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_note-Carey_tuath_de-3)^ Several of the Tuath Dé are [cognate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognate "Cognate") with [ancient Celtic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Celtic_religion "Ancient Celtic religion") deities: Lugh with [Lugus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lugus "Lugus"), Brigid with [Brigantia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brigantia_(goddess) "Brigantia (goddess)"), Nuada with [Nodons](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nodons "Nodons"), and [Ogma](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ogma "Ogma") with [Ogmios](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ogmios "Ogmios").^[[3]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_note-Carey_tuath_de-3)^ + +Nevertheless, [John Carey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Carey_(Celticist) "John Carey (Celticist)") notes that it is not wholly accurate to describe all of them as gods in the medieval literature itself. He argues that the literary Tuath Dé are *[sui generis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sui_generis "Sui generis")*, and suggests "immortals" might be a more neutral term.^[[3]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_note-Carey_tuath_de-3)^ + +Many of the Tuath Dé are not defined by singular qualities, but are more of the nature of well-rounded humans, who have areas of special interests or skills like the druidic arts they learned before traveling to Ireland.^[[6]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_note-:1-6)^ In this way, they do not correspond directly to other pantheons such as those of the [Greeks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks "Greeks") or [Romans](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Empire "Roman Empire").^[[7]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_note-HGT-1949-rvw-7)^ + +Irish goddesses or Otherworldly women are usually connected to the land, the waters, and sovereignty, and are often seen as the oldest ancestors of the people in the region or nation. They are maternal figures caring for the earth itself as well as their descendants, but also fierce defenders, teachers and warriors. The goddess [Brigid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brigid "Brigid") is linked with poetry, healing, and smithing.^[[8]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_note-Monaghan-2004-8)^ Another is the [Cailleach](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cailleach "Cailleach"), said to have lived many lives that begin and end with her in stone formation. She is still celebrated at [Ballycrovane Ogham Stone](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballycrovane_Ogham_Stone "Ballycrovane Ogham Stone") with offerings and the retelling of her life's stories. The tales of the Cailleach connect her to both land and sea.^[[9]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_note-9)^ Several Otherworldly women are associated with sacred sites where seasonal festivals are held. They include [Macha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macha "Macha") of [Eamhain Mhacha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eamhain_Mhacha "Eamhain Mhacha"), [Carman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carman "Carman"), and [Tailtiu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tailtiu "Tailtiu"), among others.^[[7]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_note-HGT-1949-rvw-7)^ + +Warrior goddesses are often depicted as a triad and connected with sovereignty and sacred animals. They guard the battlefield and those who do battle, and according to the stories in the *[Táin Bó Cúailnge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%A1in_B%C3%B3_C%C3%BAailnge "Táin Bó Cúailnge")*, some of them may instigate and direct war themselves.^[[10]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_note-Kinsella-1970-10)^ The main goddesses of battle are The Morrígan, Macha, and [Badb](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Badb "Badb").^[[11]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_note-Dillon-1972-11)^ Other warrior women are seen in the role of training warriors in the Fianna bands, such as [Liath Luachra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liath_Luachra "Liath Luachra"), one of the women who trained the hero [Fionn mac Cumhaill](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fionn_mac_Cumhaill "Fionn mac Cumhaill").^[[12]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_note-Nagy-1985-12)^^[*[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources "Wikipedia:Citing sources")*]^ [Zoomorphism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoomorphism "Zoomorphism") is an important feature. Badb Catha, for instance, is "the Raven of Battle",^[[13]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_note-Powell-1989-Celts-13)^ and in the *Táin Bó Cúailnge*, The Morrígan shapeshifts into an eel, a wolf, and a cow.^[[10]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_note-Kinsella-1970-10)^ + +Irish gods are divided into four main groups.^[[14]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_note-14)^ Group one encompasses the older gods of [Gaul](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaul "Gaul") and Britain. The second group is the main focus of much of the mythology and surrounds the native Irish gods with their homes in burial mounds. The third group are the gods that dwell in the sea and the fourth group includes stories of the Otherworld.^[[11]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_note-Dillon-1972-11)^ The gods that appear most often are the Dagda and Lugh. Some scholars have argued that the stories of these gods align with Greek stories and gods.^[[11]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_note-Dillon-1972-11)^ + +### Fomorians[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Irish_mythology&action=edit§ion=3 "Edit section: Fomorians")] + +[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/The_Fomorians%2C_Duncan_1912.jpg/250px-The_Fomorians%2C_Duncan_1912.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Fomorians,_Duncan_1912.jpg) + +The Fomorians, as depicted by John Duncan (1912) + +The [Fomorians](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fomorians "Fomorians") or Fomori ([Old Irish](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Irish_language "Old Irish language"): *Fomóire*)^[[15]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_note-Ohogain_fomori-15)^ are a supernatural race, who are often portrayed as hostile and monstrous beings. Originally, they were said to come from under the sea or the earth.^[[15]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_note-Ohogain_fomori-15)^ Later, they were portrayed as sea raiders, which was probably influenced by the [Viking raids on Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Ireland_(800%E2%80%931169) "History of Ireland (800--1169)") around that time.^[[15]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_note-Ohogain_fomori-15)^ Later still they were portrayed as giants. They are enemies of Ireland's [first settlers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lebor_Gab%C3%A1la_%C3%89renn "Lebor Gabála Érenn") and opponents of the Tuatha Dé Danann,^[[16]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_note-Carey_fomori-16)^ although some members of the two races have offspring. The Fomorians were viewed as the alter-egos to the Tuath Dé^[[6]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_note-:1-6)^^[*[need quotation to verify](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability "Wikipedia:Verifiability")*]^ The Tuath Dé defeat the Fomorians in the *[Battle of Mag Tuired](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cath_Maige_Tuired "Cath Maige Tuired")*.^[[6]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_note-:1-6)^ This has been likened to other [Indo-European myths](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_mythology "Proto-Indo-European mythology") of a war between gods, such as the [Æsir and Vanir](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%86sir%E2%80%93Vanir_War "Æsir--Vanir War") in [Norse mythology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norse_mythology "Norse mythology") and the [Olympians and Titans](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titanomachy "Titanomachy") in [Greek mythology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_mythology "Greek mythology").^[[17]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_note-Ohogain_myth_cycle-17)^ + +### Heroes[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Irish_mythology&action=edit§ion=4 "Edit section: Heroes")] + +Heroes in Irish mythology can be found in two distinct groups. There is the lawful hero who exists within the boundaries of the community, protecting their people from outsiders.^[[12]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_note-Nagy-1985-12)^ Within the kin-group or *[tuath](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuath "Tuath")*, heroes are human and gods are not.^[[7]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_note-HGT-1949-rvw-7)^ + +The [Fianna](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fianna "Fianna") warrior bands are seen as outsiders, connected with the wilderness, youth, and liminal states.^[[12]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_note-Nagy-1985-12)^ Their leader was called Fionn mac Cumhaill, and the first stories of him are told in fourth century. They are considered aristocrats and outsiders who protect the community from other outsiders; though they may winter with a settled community, they spend the summers living wild, training adolescents and providing a space for war-damaged veterans. The time of vagrancy for these youths is designated as a transition in life post puberty but pre-manhood. Manhood being identified as owning or inheriting property. They live under the authority of their own leaders, or may be somewhat anarchic, and may follow other deities or spirits than the settled communities.^[[12]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_note-Nagy-1985-12)^^[[7]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_note-HGT-1949-rvw-7)^ + +The church refused to recognize this group as an institution and referred to them as "sons of death".^[[4]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_note-:0-4)^ + +### Legendary creatures[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Irish_mythology&action=edit§ion=5 "Edit section: Legendary creatures")] + +The [Oilliphéist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oilliph%C3%A9ist "Oilliphéist") is a sea-serpent-like monster in Irish mythology and folklore. These monsters were believed to inhabit many lakes and rivers in Ireland and there are legends of saints, especially St. Patrick, and heroes fighting them.^[[18]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_note-18)^^[[19]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_note-19)^ + +Sources[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Irish_mythology&action=edit§ion=6 "Edit section: Sources")] +------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +[![A page from a 12th-century Irish manuscript](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Book_of_Leinster%2C_folio_53.jpg/220px-Book_of_Leinster%2C_folio_53.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Book_of_Leinster,_folio_53.jpg) + +Folio 53 of the *[Book of Leinster](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Leinster "Book of Leinster")*. Medieval manuscripts are the main source for Irish mythology and early literature. + +The three main manuscript sources for Irish mythology are the late 11th/early 12th century *[Lebor na hUidre](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lebor_na_hUidre "Lebor na hUidre")* (Book of the Dun Cow), which is in the library of the [Royal Irish Academy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Irish_Academy "Royal Irish Academy"), and is the oldest surviving manuscript written entirely in the Irish language; the early 12th-century *[Book of Leinster](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Leinster "Book of Leinster")*, which is in the [Library](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinity_College_Library,_Dublin "Trinity College Library, Dublin") of [Trinity College Dublin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinity_College_Dublin "Trinity College Dublin"); and [Bodleian Library, MS Rawlinson B 502](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bodleian_Library,_MS_Rawlinson_B_502 "Bodleian Library, MS Rawlinson B 502") (*Rawl.*), which is in the [Bodleian Library](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bodleian_Library "Bodleian Library") at the [University of Oxford](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Oxford "University of Oxford"). Despite the dates of these sources, most of the material they contain predates their composition.^[[20]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_note-Frehan-2012-20)^ + +Other important sources include a group of manuscripts that originated in the West of Ireland in the late 14th century or the early 15th century: *The [Yellow Book of Lecan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellow_Book_of_Lecan "Yellow Book of Lecan")*, *The [Great Book of Lecan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Book_of_Lecan "Great Book of Lecan")* and *The [Book of Ballymote](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Ballymote "Book of Ballymote")*. The first of these is in the Library of Trinity College and the others are in the Royal Irish Academy. The Yellow Book of Lecan is composed of sixteen parts and includes the legends of Fionn Mac Cumhail, selections of legends of Irish Saints, and the earliest known version of the *[Táin Bó Cúailnge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%A1in_B%C3%B3_C%C3%BAailnge "Táin Bó Cúailnge")* ("The Cattle Raid of Cooley"). This is one of Europe's oldest epics written in a vernacular language.^[[20]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_note-Frehan-2012-20)^ Other 15th-century manuscripts, such as *The Book of Fermoy*, also contain interesting materials, as do such later syncretic works such as [Geoffrey Keating](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoffrey_Keating "Geoffrey Keating")'s *Foras Feasa ar Éirinn* (*The History of Ireland*) (c. 1640). These later compilers and writers may well have had access to manuscript sources that have since disappeared. + +Most of these manuscripts were created by Christian [monks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monk "Monk"), who may well have been torn between a desire to record their native culture and hostility to pagan beliefs, resulting in some of the gods being [euhemerised](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/euhemerize "wiktionary:euhemerize"). Many of the later sources may also have formed parts of a propaganda effort designed to create a history for the people of Ireland that could bear comparison with the mythological descent of their British invaders from the founders of Rome, as promulgated by [Geoffrey of Monmouth](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoffrey_of_Monmouth "Geoffrey of Monmouth") and others. There was also a tendency to rework Irish genealogies to fit them into the schemas of Greek or biblical genealogy. + +Whether medieval Irish literature provides reliable evidence of [oral tradition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oral_tradition "Oral tradition") remains a matter for debate. [Kenneth Jackson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenneth_H._Jackson "Kenneth H. Jackson") described the Ulster Cycle as a "window on the Iron Age", and Garret Olmsted has attempted to draw parallels between *[Táin Bó Cuailnge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%A1in_B%C3%B3_Cuailnge "Táin Bó Cuailnge")*, the Ulster Cycle epic and the iconography of the [Gundestrup Cauldron](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gundestrup_Cauldron "Gundestrup Cauldron").^[[21]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_note-Jackson-1964-oldest-21)^ However, these "nativist" claims have been challenged by "revisionist" scholars who believe that much of the literature was created, rather than merely recorded, in Christian times, more or less in imitation of the [epics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epic_poetry "Epic poetry") of [classical literature](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_literature "Classical literature") that came with [Latin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin "Latin") learning. The revisionists point to passages apparently influenced by the [Iliad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iliad "Iliad") in *Táin Bó Cuailnge*, and to the *Togail Troí*, an Irish adaptation of [Dares Phrygius](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dares_Phrygius "Dares Phrygius")' *De excidio Troiae historia*, found in the Book of Leinster. They also argue that the material culture depicted in the stories is generally closer to that of the time of their composition than to that of the distant past.^[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")*]^ + +Mythological Cycle[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Irish_mythology&action=edit§ion=7 "Edit section: Mythological Cycle")] +----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Lugh_spear_Millar.jpg/220px-Lugh_spear_Millar.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lugh_spear_Millar.jpg) + +Lugh's Magic Spear; illustration by H. R. Millar + +Main article: [Mythological Cycle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mythological_Cycle "Mythological Cycle") + +The [Mythological Cycle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mythological_Cycle "Mythological Cycle"), comprising stories of the former gods and origins of the Irish, is the least well preserved of the four cycles. It is about the principal people who invaded and inhabited the island. The people include Cessair and her followers, the Formorians, the Partholinians, the Nemedians, the Firbolgs, the [Tuatha Dé Danann](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuatha_D%C3%A9_Danann "Tuatha Dé Danann"), and the Milesians.^[[20]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_note-Frehan-2012-20)^ The most important sources are the *[Metrical Dindshenchas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metrical_Dindshenchas "Metrical Dindshenchas")* or *Lore of Places* and the *[Lebor Gabála Érenn](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lebor_Gab%C3%A1la_%C3%89renn "Lebor Gabála Érenn")* or *Book of Invasions*. Other manuscripts preserve such mythological tales as *[The Dream of Aengus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bodb_Derg "Bodb Derg")*, *[the Wooing Of Étain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Wooing_Of_%C3%89tain "The Wooing Of Étain")* and *[Cath Maige Tuireadh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cath_Maige_Tuireadh "Cath Maige Tuireadh")*, *the (second) Battle of Magh Tuireadh*. One of the best known of all Irish stories, *Oidheadh Clainne Lir*, or *[The Tragedy of the Children of Lir](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Children_of_Lir "Children of Lir")*, is also part of this cycle. + +*Lebor Gabála Érenn* is a pseudo-history of Ireland, tracing the ancestry of the Irish back to before [Noah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noah "Noah"). It tells of a series of invasions or "takings" of Ireland by a succession of peoples, the fifth of whom was the people known as the [Tuatha Dé Danann](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuatha_D%C3%A9_Danann "Tuatha Dé Danann") ("Peoples of the Goddess Danu"), who were believed to have inhabited the island before the arrival of the [Gaels](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaels "Gaels"), or [Milesians](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milesians_(Irish) "Milesians (Irish)"). They faced opposition from their enemies, the [Fomorians](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fomorians "Fomorians"), led by [Balor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balor "Balor") of the Evil Eye. Balor was eventually slain by [Lugh Lámfada](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lugh "Lugh") (Lugh of the Long Arm) at the second battle of Magh Tuireadh. With the arrival of the Gaels, the Tuatha Dé Danann retired underground to become the [fairy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fairy "Fairy") people of later myth and legend. + +The *Metrical Dindshenchas* is the great [onomastics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onomastic "Onomastic") work of early Ireland, giving the naming legends of significant places in a sequence of poems. It includes a lot of important information on Mythological Cycle figures and stories, including the Battle of Tailtiu, in which the Tuatha Dé Danann were defeated by the Milesians. + +It is important to note that by the Middle Ages the Tuatha Dé Danann were not viewed so much as gods as the shape-shifting magician population of an earlier [Golden Age](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_Age "Golden Age") Ireland. Texts such as *Lebor Gabála Érenn* and *Cath Maige Tuireadh* present them as kings and heroes of the distant past, complete with death-tales. However, there is considerable evidence, both in the texts and from the wider Celtic world, that they were once considered [deities](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deity "Deity"). + +Even after they are displaced as the rulers of Ireland, characters such as [Lugh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lugh "Lugh"), the [Mórrígan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%B3rr%C3%ADgan "Mórrígan"), [Aengus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aengus "Aengus") and [Manannán Mac Lir](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manann%C3%A1n_mac_Lir "Manannán mac Lir") appear in stories set centuries later, betraying their immortality. A poem in the Book of Leinster lists many of the Tuatha Dé, but ends "Although [the author] enumerates them, he does not worship them". [Goibniu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goibniu "Goibniu"), [Creidhne](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creidhne "Creidhne") and [Luchta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luchta "Luchta") are referred to as *Trí Dé Dána* ("three gods of craftsmanship"), and the [Dagda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dagda "Dagda")'s name is interpreted in [medieval](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval "Medieval") texts as "the good god". [Nuada](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuada "Nuada") is [cognate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognate "Cognate") with the [British](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prehistoric_Britain "Prehistoric Britain") god [Nodens](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nodens "Nodens"); [Lugh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lugh "Lugh") is a reflex of the pan-[Celtic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celt "Celt") deity [Lugus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lugus "Lugus"), the name of whom may indicate "Light"; [Tuireann](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuireann "Tuireann") may be related to the [Gaulish](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaulish "Gaulish") [Taranis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taranis "Taranis"); [Ogma](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ogma "Ogma") to [Ogmios](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ogmios "Ogmios"); the [Badb](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Badb "Badb") to [Catubodua](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catubodua "Catubodua"). + +Ulster Cycle[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Irish_mythology&action=edit§ion=8 "Edit section: Ulster Cycle")] +----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Cuinbattle.jpg/220px-Cuinbattle.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cuinbattle.jpg) + +"Cuchulain in Battle", illustration by [J. C. Leyendecker](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._C._Leyendecker "J. C. Leyendecker") in T. W. Rolleston's *Myths & Legends of the Celtic Race*, 1911 + +Main article: [Ulster Cycle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulster_Cycle "Ulster Cycle") + +The [Ulster Cycle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulster_Cycle "Ulster Cycle") is traditionally set around the first century AD, and most of the action takes place in the provinces of [Ulster](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulster "Ulster") and [Connacht](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connacht "Connacht"). It consists of a group of heroic tales dealing with the lives of [Conchobar mac Nessa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conchobar_mac_Nessa "Conchobar mac Nessa"), king of Ulster, the great hero [Cú Chulainn](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%BA_Chulainn "Cú Chulainn"), who was the son of Lug ([Lugh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lugh "Lugh")), and of their friends, lovers, and enemies. These are the [Ulaid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulaid "Ulaid"), or people of the North-Eastern corner of Ireland and the action of the stories centres round the royal court at [Emain Macha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emain_Macha "Emain Macha") (known in English as Navan Fort), close to the modern town of [Armagh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armagh "Armagh"). The Ulaid had close links with the Irish colony in [Scotland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotland "Scotland"), and part of Cú Chulainn's training takes place in that colony. + +The cycle consists of stories of the births, early lives and training, wooing, battles, feastings, and deaths of the heroes. It also reflects a warrior society in which warfare consists mainly of single combats and wealth is measured mainly in cattle. These stories are written mainly in prose. The centerpiece of the Ulster Cycle is the *[Táin Bó Cúailnge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%A1in_B%C3%B3_C%C3%BAailnge "Táin Bó Cúailnge")*. Other important Ulster Cycle tales include *[The Tragic Death of Aife's only Son](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aided_%C3%93enfhir_A%C3%ADfe "Aided Óenfhir Aífe")*, *[Bricriu's Feast](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bricriu%27s_Feast "Bricriu's Feast")*, and *[The Destruction of Da Derga's Hostel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Destruction_of_Da_Derga%27s_Hostel "The Destruction of Da Derga's Hostel")*. *The Exile of the Sons of Usnach*, better known as the tragedy of [Deirdre](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deirdre "Deirdre") and the source of plays by [John Millington Synge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Millington_Synge "John Millington Synge"), [William Butler Yeats](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Butler_Yeats "William Butler Yeats"), and [Vincent Woods](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vincent_Woods "Vincent Woods"), is also part of this cycle. + +This cycle is, in some respects, close to the mythological cycle. Some of the characters from the latter reappear, and the same sort of shape-shifting magic is much in evidence, side by side with a grim, almost callous realism. While we may suspect a few characters, such as [Medb](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medb "Medb") or [Cú Roí](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%BA_Ro%C3%AD "Cú Roí"), of once being deities, and Cú Chulainn in particular displays superhuman prowess, the characters are mortal and associated with a specific time and place. If the Mythological Cycle represents a Golden Age, the Ulster Cycle is Ireland's [Heroic Age](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heroic_Age_(literary_theory) "Heroic Age (literary theory)"). + +Fianna Cycle[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Irish_mythology&action=edit§ion=9 "Edit section: Fianna Cycle")] +----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Heroes_of_the_dawn_%281914%29_%2814750481494%29.jpg/220px-Heroes_of_the_dawn_%281914%29_%2814750481494%29.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Heroes_of_the_dawn_(1914)_(14750481494).jpg) + +Fionn fighting Aillen, illustration by [Beatrice Elvery](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beatrice_Elvery "Beatrice Elvery") in Violet Russell's *Heroes of the Dawn* (1914) + +Main article: [Fianna Cycle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fianna_Cycle "Fianna Cycle") + +Like the Ulster Cycle, the Fianna Cycle or Fenian Cycle, also referred to as the Ossianic Cycle, is concerned with the deeds of Irish heroes. The stories of the Cycle appear to be set around the 3rd century and mainly in the provinces of [Leinster](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leinster "Leinster") and [Munster](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Munster "Munster").^[[20]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_note-Frehan-2012-20)^ They differ from the other cycles in the strength of their links with the Gaelic-speaking community in Scotland and there are many extant texts from that country. They also differ from the Ulster Cycle in that the stories are told mainly in [verse](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meter_(poetry) "Meter (poetry)") and that in tone they are nearer to the tradition of romance than the tradition of epic. The stories concern the doings of [Fionn mac Cumhaill](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fionn_mac_Cumhaill "Fionn mac Cumhaill") and his band of soldiers, the [Fianna](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fianna "Fianna"). + +The single most important source for the Fianna Cycle is the *[Acallam na Senórach](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acallam_na_Sen%C3%B3rach "Acallam na Senórach")* (*Colloquy of the Old Men*), which is found in two 15th century manuscripts, the *[Book of Lismore](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Lismore "Book of Lismore")* and Laud 610, as well as a 17th century manuscript from [Killiney](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Killiney "Killiney"), [County Dublin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_Dublin "County Dublin"). The text is dated from linguistic evidence to the 12th century. The text records conversations between [Caílte mac Rónáin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ca%C3%ADlte_mac_R%C3%B3n%C3%A1in "Caílte mac Rónáin") and [Oisín](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ois%C3%ADn "Oisín"), the last surviving members of the Fianna, and [Saint Patrick](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Patrick "Saint Patrick"), and consists of about 8,000 lines. The late dates of the manuscripts may reflect a longer oral tradition for the Fenian stories. + +The Fianna of the story are divided into the Clann Baiscne, led by Fionn mac Cumhaill (often rendered as "Finn MacCool", Finn Son of Cumhall), and the Clann Morna, led by his enemy, [Goll mac Morna](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goll_mac_Morna "Goll mac Morna"). Goll killed Fionn's father, [Cumhal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumhal "Cumhal"), in battle and the boy Fionn was brought up in secrecy. As a youth, while being trained in the art of poetry, he accidentally burned his thumb while cooking the Salmon of Knowledge, which allowed him to suck or bite his thumb to receive bursts of stupendous wisdom. He took his place as the leader of his band and numerous tales are told of their adventures. Two of the greatest of the Irish tales, *[Tóraigheacht Dhiarmada agus Ghráinne](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Pursuit_of_Diarmuid_and_Gr%C3%A1inne "The Pursuit of Diarmuid and Gráinne")* (*The Pursuit of [Diarmuid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Pursuit_of_Diarmuid_and_Gr%C3%A1inne "The Pursuit of Diarmuid and Gráinne") and [Gráinne](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gr%C3%A1inne "Gráinne"))* and *Oisín in [Tír na nÓg](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%ADr_na_n%C3%93g "Tír na nÓg")* form part of the cycle. The Diarmuid and Grainne story, which is one of the cycle's few prose tales, is a probable source of *[Tristan and Iseult](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tristan_and_Iseult "Tristan and Iseult")*. + +The world of the Fianna Cycle is one in which professional warriors spend their time hunting, fighting, and engaging in adventures in the spirit world. New entrants into the band are expected to be knowledgeable in poetry as well as undergo a number of physical tests or ordeals. Most of the poems are attributed to being composed by Oisín*.* This cycle creates a bridge between pre-Christian and Christian times.^[[20]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_note-Frehan-2012-20)^ + +Kings' Cycle[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Irish_mythology&action=edit§ion=10 "Edit section: Kings' Cycle")] +------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +Main article: [Cycles of the Kings](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cycles_of_the_Kings "Cycles of the Kings") + +It was part of the duty of the medieval Irish bards, or court [poets](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_poetry "Irish poetry"), to record the history of the family and the genealogy of the king they served. This they did in poems that blended the mythological and the historical to a greater or lesser degree. The resulting stories from what has come to be known as the Cycle of the Kings, or more correctly Cycles, as there are a number of independent groupings. This term is a more recent addition to the cycles, with it being coined in 1946 by Irish literary critic [Myles Dillon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myles_Dillon "Myles Dillon"). + +The kings that are included range from the almost entirely mythological [Labraid Loingsech](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labraid_Loingsech "Labraid Loingsech"), who allegedly became High King of Ireland around 431 BC, to the entirely historical [Brian Boru](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_Boru "Brian Boru"). However, the greatest glory of the Kings' Cycle is the *[Buile Shuibhne](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buile_Shuibhne "Buile Shuibhne")* (*The Frenzy of Sweeney*), a 12th century tale told in verse and prose. Suibhne, king of [Dál nAraidi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%A1l_nAraidi "Dál nAraidi"), was cursed by St. Ronan and became a kind of half-man, half bird, condemned to live out his life in the woods, fleeing from his human companions. The story has captured the imaginations of contemporary Irish poets and has been translated by [Trevor Joyce](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trevor_Joyce "Trevor Joyce") and [Seamus Heaney](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seamus_Heaney "Seamus Heaney"). + +Other tales[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Irish_mythology&action=edit§ion=11 "Edit section: Other tales")] +---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +[![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Mound_of_the_Hostages%2C_Hill_of_Tara_2018-07-24.jpg/290px-Mound_of_the_Hostages%2C_Hill_of_Tara_2018-07-24.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mound_of_the_Hostages,_Hill_of_Tara_2018-07-24.jpg) + +The [Mound of the Hostages](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mound_of_the_Hostages "Mound of the Hostages"), located in [County Meath](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_Meath "County Meath"). Places beneath mounds and hills were attested locations of the Irish Otherworld.^[[22]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarey2000113,_116-22)^ + +### *Eachtraí*[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Irish_mythology&action=edit§ion=12 "Edit section: Eachtraí")] + +The adventures, or *[echtrae](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Echtrae "Echtrae")*, are a group of stories of visits to the [Irish Other World](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic_Otherworld "Celtic Otherworld") (which may be westward across the sea, underground, or simply invisible to mortals). The most famous, *Oisin in Tir na nÓg* belongs to the Fenian Cycle, but several free-standing adventures survive, including *The Adventure of Conle*, *[The Voyage of Bran mac Ferbail](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Voyage_of_Bran "The Voyage of Bran")*, and *The Adventure of [Lóegaire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%B3egaire "Lóegaire")*. + +### *Immrama*[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Irish_mythology&action=edit§ion=13 "Edit section: Immrama")] + +The voyages, or *[immrama](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immrama "Immrama")*, are tales of sea journeys and the wonders seen on them that may have resulted from the combination of the experiences of fishermen combined and the Other World elements that inform the adventures. Of the seven *immrama* mentioned in the manuscripts, only three have survived: *[The Voyage of Máel Dúin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Voyage_of_M%C3%A1el_D%C3%BAin "The Voyage of Máel Dúin")*, the *[Voyage of the Uí Chorra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voyage_of_the_U%C3%AD_Chorra "Voyage of the Uí Chorra")*, and the *[Voyage of Snedgus and Mac Riagla](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voyage_of_Snedgus_and_Mac_Riagla "Voyage of Snedgus and Mac Riagla")*. *The Voyage of Mael Duin* is the forerunner of the later *[Voyage of St. Brendan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brendan_the_Navigator "Brendan the Navigator")*. While not as ancient, later 8th century AD works, that influenced European literature, include [The Vision of Adamnán](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Vision_of_Adamn%C3%A1n "The Vision of Adamnán"). + +### Folk tales[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Irish_mythology&action=edit§ion=14 "Edit section: Folk tales")] + +Main article: [Irish folklore](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_folklore "Irish folklore") + +Although there are no written sources of Irish mythology, many stories are passed down orally through traditional storytelling. Some of these stories have been lost, but some Celtic regions continue to tell folktales to the modern-day. Folktales and stories were primarily preserved by monastic scribes from the [bards](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bard "Bard") of nobility. Once the noble houses started to decline, this tradition was put to an abrupt end. The bards passed the stories to their families, and the families would take on the oral tradition of storytelling. + +During the first few years of the 20th century, [Herminie T. Kavanagh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herminie_T._Kavanagh "Herminie T. Kavanagh") wrote down many Irish folk tales, which she published in magazines and in two books. Twenty-six years after her death, the tales from her two books, *Darby O'Gill and the Good People* and *Ashes of Old Wishes,* were made into the film *[Darby O'Gill and the Little People](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darby_O%27Gill_and_the_Little_People "Darby O'Gill and the Little People")*. Noted Irish playwright [Lady Gregory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lady_Gregory "Lady Gregory") also collected folk stories to preserve Irish history. The [Irish Folklore Commission](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Folklore_Commission "Irish Folklore Commission") gathered folk tales from the general Irish populace from 1935 onward. + +References[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Irish_mythology&action=edit§ion=15 "Edit section: References")] +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +### Citations[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Irish_mythology&action=edit§ion=16 "Edit section: Citations")] + +1. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_ref-1 "Jump up")** *[Koch, John](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_T._Koch "John T. Koch") (2006). *Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia*. ABC-CLIO. p. 1326.* +2. ^ [Jump up to:^***a***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_ref-Koch995_2-0) [^***b***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_ref-Koch995_2-1) *[Koch, John](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_T._Koch "John T. Koch") (2006). *Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia*. [ABC-CLIO](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ABC-CLIO "ABC-CLIO"). p. 995.* +3. ^ [Jump up to:^***a***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_ref-Carey_tuath_de_3-0) [^***b***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_ref-Carey_tuath_de_3-1) [^***c***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_ref-Carey_tuath_de_3-2) [^***d***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_ref-Carey_tuath_de_3-3) [^***e***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_ref-Carey_tuath_de_3-4) [^***f***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_ref-Carey_tuath_de_3-5) [^***g***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_ref-Carey_tuath_de_3-6) [^***h***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_ref-Carey_tuath_de_3-7) [^***i***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_ref-Carey_tuath_de_3-8) [^***j***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_ref-Carey_tuath_de_3-9) [^***k***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_ref-Carey_tuath_de_3-10) [^***l***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_ref-Carey_tuath_de_3-11) [^***m***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_ref-Carey_tuath_de_3-12) [^***n***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_ref-Carey_tuath_de_3-13) [^***o***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_ref-Carey_tuath_de_3-14) *[Carey, John](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Carey_(Celticist) "John Carey (Celticist)") (2006). "Tuath Dé". In [John T. Koch](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_T._Koch "John T. Koch") (ed.). *Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia*. ABC-CLIO. pp. 1693--1697.* +4. ^ [Jump up to:^***a***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_ref-:0_4-0) [^***b***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_ref-:0_4-1) *Williams, M. A. (2016). [*Ireland's Immortals: A history of the gods of Irish myth*](https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/951724639). Princeton, New Jersey. p. 82. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-691-15731-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-15731-3 "Special:BookSources/978-0-691-15731-3"). [OCLC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier) "OCLC (identifier)") [951724639](https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/951724639).* +5. ^ [Jump up to:^***a***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_ref-Ohogain_tuath_de_5-0) [^***b***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_ref-Ohogain_tuath_de_5-1) [^***c***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_ref-Ohogain_tuath_de_5-2) *[Ó hÓgáin, Dáithí](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%A1ith%C3%AD_%C3%93_h%C3%93g%C3%A1in "Dáithí Ó hÓgáin") (1991). *Myth, Legend & Romance: An encyclopaedia of the Irish folk tradition*. Prentice Hall Press. pp. 312--315, 407--409.* +6. ^ [Jump up to:^***a***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_ref-:1_6-0) [^***b***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_ref-:1_6-1) [^***c***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_ref-:1_6-2) [^***d***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_ref-:1_6-3) *Retzlaff, Kay (1998). [*Ireland : its myths and legends*](https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/37457923). New York: Metro Books. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [1-56799-564-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56799-564-0 "Special:BookSources/1-56799-564-0"). [OCLC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier) "OCLC (identifier)") [37457923](https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/37457923).* +7. ^ [Jump up to:^***a***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_ref-HGT-1949-rvw_7-0) [^***b***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_ref-HGT-1949-rvw_7-1) [^***c***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_ref-HGT-1949-rvw_7-2) [^***d***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_ref-HGT-1949-rvw_7-3) *H.G.T. (1949). "Reviewed work: *Gods and Heroes of the Celts* by Marie-Louise Sjoestedt & Mules Dillon". *Journal of the County Louth Archaeological Society* (book review). **12** (1): 85. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"):[10.2307/27728728](https://doi.org/10.2307%2F27728728). [ISSN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier) "ISSN (identifier)") [1393-2195](https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1393-2195). [JSTOR](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier) "JSTOR (identifier)") [27728728](https://www.jstor.org/stable/27728728).* +8. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_ref-Monaghan-2004_8-0 "Jump up")** *Monaghan, Patricia (2004). *The encyclopedia of Celtic mythology and folklore*. Facts On File. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [0816045240](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0816045240 "Special:BookSources/0816045240"). [OCLC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier) "OCLC (identifier)") [51886379](https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/51886379).* +9. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_ref-9 "Jump up")** *Wyeth, Adam (2013). [*The hidden world of poetry : unravelling Celtic mythology in contemporary Irish poetry*](http://worldcat.org/oclc/857525147). Salmon Poetry. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-1-908836-56-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-908836-56-4 "Special:BookSources/978-1-908836-56-4"). [OCLC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier) "OCLC (identifier)") [857525147](https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/857525147).* +10. ^ [Jump up to:^***a***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_ref-Kinsella-1970_10-0) [^***b***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_ref-Kinsella-1970_10-1) *Kinsella, Thomas (1970). *The Tain* [*The Raid*]. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [0-19-281090-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-281090-1 "Special:BookSources/0-19-281090-1").* +11. ^ [Jump up to:^***a***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_ref-Dillon-1972_11-0) [^***b***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_ref-Dillon-1972_11-1) [^***c***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_ref-Dillon-1972_11-2) *Dillon, Myles; Chadwick, Nora Kershaw (1972). *The Celtic Realms* (2nd ed.). London, UK: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [0297995804](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0297995804 "Special:BookSources/0297995804"). [OCLC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier) "OCLC (identifier)") [813540156](https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/813540156).* +12. ^ [Jump up to:^***a***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_ref-Nagy-1985_12-0) [^***b***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_ref-Nagy-1985_12-1) [^***c***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_ref-Nagy-1985_12-2) [^***d***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_ref-Nagy-1985_12-3)\ + *Nagy, Joseph Falaky (1985). *The Wisdom of the Outlaw: The boyhood deeds of Finn in gaelic narrative tradition*. Berkeley & Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press.* +13. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_ref-Powell-1989-Celts_13-0 "Jump up")** *[Powell, T. G. E.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T._G._E._Powell "T. G. E. Powell") (1989). *The Celts*. Thames and Hudson. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [0500272751](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0500272751 "Special:BookSources/0500272751"). [OCLC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier) "OCLC (identifier)") [472847240](https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/472847240).* +14. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_ref-14 "Jump up")** *OR 97219, Overseas and Off-Campus ProgramsLewis & Clark615 S. Palatine Hill Road MSC 11Portland. ["Once Upon a Time, Irish Mythology Crash Course"](https://college.lclark.edu/live/blogs/68-once-upon-a-time-irish-mythology-crash-course). *college.lclark.edu*. Retrieved 12 March 2024.* +15. ^ [Jump up to:^***a***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_ref-Ohogain_fomori_15-0) [^***b***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_ref-Ohogain_fomori_15-1) [^***c***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_ref-Ohogain_fomori_15-2) *[Ó hÓgáin, Dáithí](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%A1ith%C3%AD_%C3%93_h%C3%93g%C3%A1in "Dáithí Ó hÓgáin") (1991). *Myth, Legend & Romance: An encyclopaedia of the Irish folk tradition*. Prentice Hall Press. pp. 232--233.* +16. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_ref-Carey_fomori_16-0 "Jump up")** *[Carey, John](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Carey_(Celticist) "John Carey (Celticist)") (2006). "Fomoiri". In [John T. Koch](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_T._Koch "John T. Koch") (ed.). *Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia*. ABC-CLIO. p. 762.* +17. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_ref-Ohogain_myth_cycle_17-0 "Jump up")** *[Ó hÓgáin, Dáithí](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%A1ith%C3%AD_%C3%93_h%C3%93g%C3%A1in "Dáithí Ó hÓgáin") (1991). *Myth, Legend & Romance: An encyclopaedia of the Irish folk tradition*. Prentice Hall Press. pp. 312--315.* +18. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_ref-18 "Jump up")** *["Oilliphéist"](https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100247615;jsessionid=A63CCC73C2E4397C92726419D92EC0B6).* +19. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_ref-19 "Jump up")** *["The Great Wyrms of Ireland | Folklore and fairy tales from the Emerald Isle"](https://emeraldisle.ie/the-great-wyrms-of-ireland).* +20. ^ [Jump up to:^***a***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_ref-Frehan-2012_20-0) [^***b***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_ref-Frehan-2012_20-1) [^***c***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_ref-Frehan-2012_20-2) [^***d***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_ref-Frehan-2012_20-3) [^***e***^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_ref-Frehan-2012_20-4) *Frehan, Pádraic (2012). *Education and Celtic Myth: National self-image and schoolbooks in 20th-century Ireland*. Rodopi. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [9789042035904](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789042035904 "Special:BookSources/9789042035904"). [OCLC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier) "OCLC (identifier)") [819379953](https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/819379953).* +21. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_ref-Jackson-1964-oldest_21-0 "Jump up")** *Jackson, Kenneth Hurlstone (1964). [*The Oldest Irish Tradition: A window on the Iron Age*](https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/246461036). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-521-05393-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-05393-8 "Special:BookSources/978-0-521-05393-8"). [OCLC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier) "OCLC (identifier)") [246461036](https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/246461036).* +22. **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarey2000113,_116_22-0 "Jump up")** [Carey 2000](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology#CITEREFCarey2000), pp. 113, 116. + +### Sources[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Irish_mythology&action=edit§ion=17 "Edit section: Sources")] + +**Primary sources in English translation** + +- Cross, Tom Peete and Clark Harris Slover. *Ancient Irish Tales*. Barnes and Noble Books, Totowa, New Jersey, 1936 repr. 1988. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [1-56619-889-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56619-889-5 "Special:BookSources/1-56619-889-5"). +- Dillon, Myles. *The Cycles of the Kings*. Oxford University Press, 1946; reprinted Four Courts Press: Dublin and Portland, OR, 1994. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [1-85182-178-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85182-178-3 "Special:BookSources/1-85182-178-3"). +- Dillon, Myles. *Early Irish Literature*. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1948; reprinted : Four Courts Press, Dublin and Portland, OR, 1994. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [0-7858-1676-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7858-1676-3 "Special:BookSources/0-7858-1676-3"). +- Joseph Dunn: *The Ancient Irish Epic Tale Táin Bó Cúailnge* (1914) +- Winifred Faraday: *The Cattle-Raid of Cualng*. London, 1904. This is a partial translation of the text in the Yellow Book of Lecan, partially censored by Faraday. +- Gantz, Jeffrey. *Early Irish Myths and Sagas*. London: Penguin Books, 1981. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [0-14-044397-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-044397-5 "Special:BookSources/0-14-044397-5"). +- Gregory, Lady Augusta. *[Cuchulain of Muirtheme](http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/celt/cuch/)*. First Published 1902. +- Kinsella, Thomas. *The Tain*. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1970. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [0-19-281090-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-281090-1 "Special:BookSources/0-19-281090-1"). +- MacKillop, James. *Dictionary of Celtic Mythology*, Oxford University Press, 1990. +- Price, Bill. *Celtic Myths*, Oldcastle Books, 2011. + +**Primary sources in Medieval Irish** + +- *Cath Maige Tuired: The Second Battle of Mag Tuired*. Elizabeth A. Gray, Ed. Dublin: Irish Texts Society, 1982. Series: Irish Texts Society (Series); v. 52. Irish text, English translation and philological notes. +- *Táin Bo Cuailnge from the Book of Leinster*. [Cecile O'Rahilly](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cecile_O%27Rahilly "Cecile O'Rahilly"), Ed. [Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dublin_Institute_for_Advanced_Studies "Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies"), 1984. +- *Táin Bo Cuailnge Recension I*. Cecile O'Rahilly, Ed. Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies 1976. Irish text, English translation and philological notes. + +**Secondary sources** + +- *[Carey, John](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Carey_(Celticist) "John Carey (Celticist)") (2000). ["The Location of the Otherworld in Irish Tradition"](https://www.ucc.ie/en/media/academic/seanmeanghaeilge/cdi/texts/Carey_Location-of-the-Otherworld.pdf) (PDF). In Wooding, Jonathan M. (ed.). [*The Otherworld Voyage in Early Irish Literature: An Anthology of Criticism*](https://books.google.com/books?id=HIdiAAAAMAAJ). Dublin: [Four Courts Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_Courts_Press "Four Courts Press"). pp. 113--119. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [9781851822461](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781851822461 "Special:BookSources/9781851822461"). [OCLC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier) "OCLC (identifier)") [1302630617](https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1302630617).* +- Coghlan, Ronan *Pocket Dictionary of Irish Myth and Legend*. Belfast: Appletree, 1985. +- Mallory, J. P. Ed. *Aspects of the Tain*. Belfast: December Publications, 1992. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [0-9517068-2-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9517068-2-9 "Special:BookSources/0-9517068-2-9"). +- O hOgain, Daithi "Myth, Legend and Romance: An Encyclopedia of the Irish Folk Tradition" Prentice Hall Press, (1991) : [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [0-13-275959-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-13-275959-4 "Special:BookSources/0-13-275959-4") (the only dictionary/encyclopedia with source references for every entry) +- [O'Rahilly, T. F.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T._F._O%27Rahilly "T. F. O'Rahilly") *Early Irish History and Mythology* (1946) +- [Rees, Brinley](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brinley_Rees "Brinley Rees") and [Alwyn Rees](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alwyn_Rees "Alwyn Rees"). *Celtic Heritage: Ancient Tradition in Ireland and Wales*. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1961; repr. 1989. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [0-500-27039-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-500-27039-2 "Special:BookSources/0-500-27039-2"). +- Sjoestedt, M. L. *Gods and Heroes of the Celts*. 1949; translated by Myles Dillon. repr. Berkeley, CA: Turtle Press, 1990. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [1-85182-179-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85182-179-1 "Special:BookSources/1-85182-179-1"). +- Williams, J. F. Caerwyn. *Irish Literary History*. Trans. Patrick K. Ford. University of Wales Press, Cardiff, Wales, and Ford and Bailie, Belmont, Massachusetts. Welsh edition 1958, English translation 1992. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [0-926689-03-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-926689-03-7 "Special:BookSources/0-926689-03-7"). + +Further reading[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Irish_mythology&action=edit§ion=18 "Edit section: Further reading")] +------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +- Clark, Rosalind (1991) *The Great Queens: Irish Goddesses from the Morrigan to Cathleen ni Houlihan*. Savage, MD, Barnes and Noble Books. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [0-389-20928-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-389-20928-7 "Special:BookSources/0-389-20928-7") +- [Danaher, Kevin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kevin_Danaher "Kevin Danaher") (1972) *The Year in Ireland*. Dublin, Mercier. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [1-85635-093-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85635-093-2 "Special:BookSources/1-85635-093-2") +- Patterson, Nerys Thomas (1994) *Cattle Lords and Clansmen: The Social Structure of Early Ireland*. Notre Dame, IN, University of Notre Dame Press (2nd edition) [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [0-268-00800-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-268-00800-0 "Special:BookSources/0-268-00800-0") +- Power, Patrick C. (1976) *Sex and Marriage in Ancient Ireland*. Dublin, Mercier +- Smyth, Daragh (1988, 1996) *A Guide to Irish Mythology*. Dublin, Irish Academic Press + +### Adaptions, collections, and retellings[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Irish_mythology&action=edit§ion=19 "Edit section: Adaptions, collections, and retellings")] + +- [James Bonwick](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Bonwick "James Bonwick"), *[Irish Druids and Old Irish Religions](https://archive.org/details/irishdruidsoldir00bonw)* (1894) +- [Gregory Frost](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregory_Frost "Gregory Frost"): *Tain* (1986), and *Remscela* (1988) +- [Lady Augusta Gregory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lady_Gregory "Lady Gregory"): *Cuchulain of Muirthemne* (1902), and *Gods and Fighting Men* (1904) +- Lenihan, Eddie and Carolyn Eve Green. *Meeting the Other Crowd: The Fairy Stories of Hidden Ireland*. New York. Jeremy P. Tarcher/Penguin. 2004. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [1-58542-307-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-58542-307-6 "Special:BookSources/1-58542-307-6") +- [Morgan Llywelyn](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morgan_Llywelyn "Morgan Llywelyn"): *[Red Branch](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Branch_(novel) "Red Branch (novel)")* (1989), *[Finn MacCool](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finn_Mac_Cool_(novel) "Finn Mac Cool (novel)")* (1994), and *[Bard: The Odyssey Of the Irish](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bard:_The_Odyssey_Of_the_Irish "Bard: The Odyssey Of the Irish")* (1984) +- [Juliet Marillier](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juliet_Marillier "Juliet Marillier"): *[Daughter of the Forest](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daughter_of_the_Forest "Daughter of the Forest")*, *[Son of the Shadows](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Son_of_the_Shadows "Son of the Shadows")*, and *[Child of the Prophecy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Child_of_the_Prophecy "Child of the Prophecy")* (Sevenwaters trilogy, 1999--2001). +- [James Stephens](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Stephens_(author) "James Stephens (author)"): *[Irish Fairy Tales](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Fairy_Tales "Irish Fairy Tales")* (1920) +- [Lady Francesca Speranza Wilde](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jane_Wilde "Jane Wilde"), *[Ancient Legends, Mystic Charms, and Superstitions of Ireland](https://archive.org/details/cu31924074445762)* (1887) + +External links[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Irish_mythology&action=edit§ion=20 "Edit section: External links")] +---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png) + +Wikimedia Commons has media related to [Irish mythology](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Irish_mythology "commons:Category:Irish mythology"). + +- [Department of Irish Folklore, Dublin. Includes the National Folklore Archives](http://www.ucd.ie/folklore) +- [The Celtic Literature Collection](http://www.maryjones.us/ctexts/index_irish.html) +- [Legendary Fictions of the Irish Celts](http://www.libraryireland.com/LegendaryFictionsIrishCelts/Contents.php/) \ No newline at end of file